Lite.   Agric.  Dept. 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


JAMES  J.  HILL. 
President  Great  Northern  Railroad  Systems. 


Feeding  Farm 
^      Animals 


By 

Thomas   Shaw 

Late  Professor  of  A  nimal  Husbandry  at  the  University  of  Minnesota 
Author  of  Animal  Breeding,  the  Study  of  Breeds,  etc. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSity 

OF 


ILLUSTRATED 


New  York 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

London 

Kegan  Paul,  French,  Trubner  &  Co.,  Limited 
1907 


Copyright,  1907,  by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 
LONDON,  ENGLAND 


To  JAMES  J.  HILL 

President 
of  the  Great  Northern  Railroad  Systems 

This  Book 
is  Respectfully  Dedicated 

in  recognition  of  the  great  work  that 
he  has  accomplished  for  the  develop- 
ment of  agriculture  in  the  United 
States. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 

In  preparing  this  book,  the  author  freely  consulted 
works  previously  written  on  the  subject,  more  especially, 
"Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding,"  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby,  'Feeds 
and  Feeding"  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry,  and  "Profitable  Stock 
Feeding"  by  Prof.  H.  R.  Smith ;  also  various  bulletins  issued 
by  the  experiment  stations  and  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  To  all  these  sources  he  desires  to  ex- 
Dress  his  indebtedness  for  the  aid  thus  rendered. 


THE  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

Several  valuable  books  have  been  written  on  the  sub- 
ject of  feeding  live  stock,  and  those  interested  have  reason 
to  be  grateful  to  the  men  who  wrote  them.  But  the  criti- 
cism has  been  made,  that  some  of  these  are  too  scientific  in 
their  treatment  of  the  subject  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  prac- 
tical feeder,  that  the  discussions  in  some  are  so  general  and 
diffuse  and  so  lacking  in  sequence,  that  the  labor  involved 
in  securing  specific  information  from  them  is  too  great, 
and  that  others  more  specific  in  their  methods  of  treatment, 
are  helpful  chiefly  to  those  only  who  live  in  areas  where 
certain  leading  foodstuffs  are  abundantly  grown.  The  need, 
therefore,  for  something  additional  on  the  subject  will  be 
at  once  conceded  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  its  needs. 

Those  who  have  thought  carefully  upon  the  subject  of 
•feeding  farm  animals  will  subscribe  to  the  statement,  that 
it  is  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  and  difficult  questions 
to  discuss  that  pertain  to  the  broad  field  of  agriculture.  So 
comprehensive  is  it  that  in  the  judgment  of  the  author,  no 
single  treatise  can  cover  a  field  so  broad  with  sufficient 
fulness.  An  attempt,  therefore,  will  not  be  made  to  produce 
such  a  book,  as  it  must  result  in  more  or  less  of  failure. 

To  cover  the  whole  subject  the  author  has  planned,  if 
spared,  to  write  five  books,  the  present  being  the  first  of 
the  series.  In  it  the  aim  has  been  to  prepare  a  work  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  student  and  stockman  that  would  suc- 
cinctly and  fully  cover  the  subject  of  feeding  and  foods  in  a 
general  way,  by  dwelling,  first  on  the  leading  principles  or 
laws  that  govern  feeding ;  second,  on  type  in  the  animals  to 


VIII  AUTHOR'S    PREFACE 

be  fed  and  the  balancing  of  foods  for  them;  third,  on  the 
foods  used  in  feeding;  and  fourth,  on  the  more  important 
considerations  that  apply  to  successful  feeding.  It  has  also 
been  the  constant  aim  to  observe  that  sequence  in  treatment 
that  would  be  natural,  orderly  and  complete ;  to  discuss 
the  subject  with  a  comprehensiveness  that  would  cover  con- 
ditions in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada;  and 
in  a  manner  so  simple  that  any  reader  may  readily  under- 
stand what  is  read. 

The  books  that  will  follow  will  discuss  the  feeding  and 
management  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  horses,  respectively, 
one  volume  being  devoted  to  each,  and  each  book  being 
complete  in  itself.  In  preparing  these,  special  emphasis 
will  be  laid  on  the  selection,  preparation  and  feeding  of 
foods  and  to  all  essentials  that  relate  to  successful  manage- 
ment. The  hope  is  cherished,  that  in  this  way  something 
will  be  done  that  may  render  some  aid  to  those  who  may 
engage  in  the  growing  of  live  stock. 

THOMAS  SHAW. 
St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I 
Live  Stock  and  Successful  Farming   3 

CHAPTER  II 
Principles  that  Govern  the  Selection  of  Animals 24 

CHAPTER  III 
Principles  that  Govern  Selecting  Foods   43 

CHAPTER  IV 
Principles  that  Govern  Development 62 

CHAPTER  V 
Principles    that    Govern    Habit    in    Digestion    and 

Assimilation    89 

CHAPTER  VI 
Principles  that  Relate  to  Restfulness    96 

CHAPTER  VII 
Principles  that  Relate  to  Prolonged  Usefulness no 

CHAPTER  VIJ 
Principles  that  Relate  to  Pregnancy 121 

CHAPTER  IX 
The  Value  of  Type  in  Domestic  Animals 133 

CHAPTER   X 
Principles  that  Govern  Feeding 163 

CHAPTER  XI 
Food  from  Cured  Fodders 191 


X  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

FAQE 

CHAPTER  XII 
Food  from  Cereals  and  Other  Seeds 225 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Food  from  By-products   265 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Food  from  Pastures 3°2 

CHAPTER  XV 
Food  from  Field  Roots  and  Tubers 323 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Preparing  Foods  for  Feeding 35° 

CHAPTER  XVII 
Considerations  that  Relate  to  Meat  Production  ......   371 

CHAPTER   XVIII 
Considerations  that  Relate  to  Milk  Production 409 

CHAPTER  XIX 
Considerations  that  Relate  to  General  Feeding 443 

CHAPTER  XX 
Considerations  that  Relate  to  the  Care  of  Domestic 

Animals    47^ 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Miscellaneous    Considerations    5°9 


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PART  I. 

Part  I  embraces  Chapters  I-IX.  Chapter  I  which  is 
introductory  discusses  Live  Stock  and  Successful  Farm- 
ing. Chapters  II  to  IX  discuss  the  laws  or  principles  which 
govern  the  feeding  of  farm  animals. 

The  successful  feeding  of  farm  animals  is  governed 
by  certain  laws  or  principles,  some  of  which  are  reason- 
ably well  understood.  It  may  be  that  there  are  other 
laws  relating  to  this  great  subject  that  are  not  yet 
evolved,  or  are  only  in  the  process  of  evolution.  The 
attempt  to  formulate  those  first  referred  to  in  regular 
sequence,  and  in  the  order  of  relative  importance,  will 
now  be  made.  That  this  is  no  easy  task  in  the  present 
state  of  knowledge  of  the  subject  will  be  apparent  from 
the  statement  that,  so  far  as  the  author  can  ascertain,  the 
attempt  to  enumerate  these  principles  as  such  has  never 
yet  been  made.  The  attempt,  therefore,  to  formulate 
these  laws  in  the  manner  stated  may  be  so  far  impossible 
as  not  to  preclude  the  necessity  for  some  revision  of  the 
order  of  arrangement  with  the  further  rolling  backward 
of  the  mists  which,  during  long  centuries,  have  shrouded 
this  subject  of  subjects  in  practical  agriculture. 

As  now  understood  by  the  author,  the  following  are 
the  chief  of  the  laws  or  principles  that  govern  successful 
feeding,  and  they  are  given  in  the  order  of  relative  im- 
portance. They  are  such  as  relate :  (i)  To  selection  in  the 
animals  to  be  fed ;  (2)  to  the  selection  of  foods  for  feed- 
ing them;  (3)  to  development  in  the  animals;  (4)  to  habit 
in  digestion  and  assimilation;  (5)  to  keeping  the  animals  at 
rest;  (6)  to  prolonging  the  period  of  usefulness;  (7)  to 
pregnancy.  These  inexorable  laws  will  now  be  discussed. 
Like  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  they  can  never 
be  changed,  except  by  Him  who  made  them,  hence,  the  great 


2  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

importance  of  understanding  them  on  the  part  of  those  who 
engage  in  keeping  domestic  animals. 

In  addition  to  these  laws  or  principles  is  a  long  array 
of  considerations  that  have  each  a  more  or  less  important 
bearing  upon  the  successful  feeding  of  animals.  They 
have  not  the  rank  or  force  of  laws  or  principles,  and  yet 
so  nearly  allied  are  some  of  them  to  the  latter,  that  it  is 
not  easy  to  determine  the  border  line  between  them. 
Each  has  a  more  or  less  important  bearing  on  the  suc- 
cessful feeding  of  animals.  That  none  of  them  have  quite 
the  rank  or  force  of  laws  is  evidenced  in  the  fact  that 
neglecting  them  will  not  be  followed  by  consequences  so 
direful  as  those  that  would  follow  non-conforming  to  the 
requirements  of  laws  or  principles,  and  yet  the  feeder 
whose  work  is  to  be  successful  cannot  afford  to  ignore 
any  one  of  them  in  the  prosecution  of  his  work.  These 
will  be  discussed  in  Chapters  XVII.  to  XXI. 


y      OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


CHAPTER  I. 
LIVE  STOCK  AND  SUCCESSFUL  FARMING. 

In  one  respect  the  story  of  agriculture  is  the  same  in 
every  country.  History  has  shown  that  the  relation  be- 
tween highest  success  in  farming  and  the  growing  and 
fattening  of  live  stock  is  so  close  as  to  be  inseparable. 
It  has  further  shown  that  the  measure  of  the  success  at- 
tained is  proportionate  to  the  extent  to  which  live  stock  is 
kept  and  maintained,  and  to  the  high  quality  of  the  same. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  every  legitimate  encouragement 
should  be  given  to  the  live  stock  industry,  and  that  every 
legitimate  effort  should  be  made  to  deepen  the  farmer's 
interest  in  live  stock  production.  Make  it  clear  to  the 
farmer  that  maintaining  live  stock  on  his  farm  will  in- 
crease his  profits  and  promote  in  many  ways  his  best  in- 
terests, and  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  he  will 
invest  in  the  same.  If  the  demonstration  cannot  be  made 
clear  to  him  that  these  results  may  be  expected  to  follow 
where  the  work  is  properly  conducted,  he  should  not  be 
urged  to  engage  in  such  work.  To  make  it  clear  that  such 
results  may  be  expected  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter. 

The  following  are  prominent  among  the  benefits  that 
accompany  the  judicious  keeping  of  live  stock  on  the 
farm:  (i)  It  increases  profits;  (2)  aids  greatly  in  the 
maintenance  of  fertility ;  (3)  benefits  rotation ;  (4)  utili- 
zes cheap  foods;  (5)  insures  cheaper  transportation  of 
farm  products;  (6)  distributes  labor  more  evenly 
throughout  the  year;  (7)  promotes  industry  in  the  farm- 
er's household;  (8)  advances  intelligence  in  the  same; 
(9)  tends  to  moor  the  young  people  in  the  farm  home  to 
farm  life,  and  (10)  is  essential  to  the  highest  develop- 
ment in  the  nation. 


4  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Bearing  on  profits. — The  relation  between  the  grow- 
ing of  live  stock  and  live  stock  products  in  any  country  is  so 
close  and  intimate  that  the  statement  is  safe  which 
claims  that  the  profits  from  agriculture  increase  or  de- 
crease with  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  live  stock  kept. 
The  only  exceptions,  probably,  are  new  areas  with  virgin 
soils,  and  limited  areas  with  high  natural  adaptation  to 
some  special  line  of  production  in  which  fertility  may  be 
maintained  for  a  time  through  the  use  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  An  illustration  is  furnished  in  the  growing  of 
certain  fruits  and  nut-bearing  trees.  The  most  prosper- 
ous rural  communities  in  any  state  or  country  are  those 
which  devote  the  largest  share  of  attention  to  live  stock 
and  live  stock  products;  as  shown  by  the  United  States 
census  of  1900,  the  profits  per  acre  rose  and  fell  with  live 
stock  values  in  the  same.  The  relation  between  land 
values  and  the  value  of  live  stock  kept  upon  the  land,  is 
close  and  intimate.  In  every  state  the  highest  land  values 
are  found  almost  invariably  where  live  stock  values  are 
relatively  the  highest.  Among  the  few  exceptions  are 
tide  lands  which  may  be  enriched  by  sediment  brought 
to  them  from  the  regulated  overflow  of  tide  waters.  The 
richest  agricultural  countries  in  the  world  are  those  which 
are  richest  in  live  stock  production.  Results  so  uni- 
formly invariable  cannot  be  the  outcome  of  acc1'^"  'f 
They  are  effects  which  are  produced  by  certain  causr-y 
ways  operative  in  live  stock  producing  areas,  under  any 
system  of  mixed  husbandry  in  which  live  stock  is  an  im- 
portant feature.  The  chief  of  the  causes  that  produce 
these  results  are  discussed  in  succeeding  paragraphs. 

Bearing  upon  fertility. — The  extent  to  which  the  soils 
of  the  United  States  are  being  depleted  of  their  fertility 
is  probably  the  saddest  feature  in  relation  to  their  culti- 
vation. This  results  first  from  the  extent  to  which  the 
elements  of  fertility  are  removed  in  the  products  sold 
from  the  farm,  chiefly  in  form  of  grain  and  bread  stuffs. 
The  larger  portion  of  these  products  are  sold  in  lands 


LIVE   STOCK   AND   SUCCESSFUL   FARMING  5 

where  the  fertility  purchased  in  them  is  used  in  growing 
crops  which  compete  with  those  sent  to  these  countries 
from  the  United  States.  Thus,  the  United  States  be- 
comes its  own  competitor.  This  suicidal  policy  may  be 
compared  with  drawing  on  the  principal  deposited  in  a 
bank  from  year  to  year,  until  all  is  gone,  rather  than  liv- 
ing on  the  interest. 

As  a  result  of  this  system,  the  evidences  of  a  waning 
fertility  are  everywhere  present  in  localities  where  the 
soil  has  been  tilled  during  successive  years.  On  the  ma- 
jor portion  of  the  lands  in  the  New  England,  Atlantic  and 
Middle  States,  good  crops  cannot  now  be  grown  without 
first  dressing  them  with  artificial  fertilizers  The  rich 
lands  of  the  middle  West  are  giving  indications  of  a  grad- 
ually waning  productiveness.  Some  of  the  mountain  val- 
leys of  the  far  West  are  less  productive  than  when  they 
were  first  tilled.  Continue  the  process  of  selling  the  food 
products  grown  upon  the  farm  and  a  time  will  come  when 
profitable  crops  cannot  any  more  be  obtained  from  the 
same. 

Marked  depletion  in  soil  fertility  is  the  greatest  calam- 
ity, material  in  its  nature,  that  can  happen  to  any  country. 
In  some  respects  it  is  worse  than  famine,  pestilence  or 
war.  When  carried  far  enough  it  leads  to  abandoned 
fanjj\siVi  A  region  of  abandoned  farms  is,  in  a  sense,  a 
^.^ness,  a  desert.  There  are  but  three  ways  in  which 
soil  depletion  may  be  prevented.  These  are,  first,  by 
maintaining  equilibrium  in  fertility  where  crops  are  sold 
through  applying  commercial  fertilizers;  second,  by 
stocking  the  land  to  its  full  capacity,  and  third,  by  com- 
bining the  two  systems.  The  occasional  burying  of  green 
crops  may  also  be  introduced  as  an  adjunct  to  each  of 
these  systems. 

There  are  two  strong  objections  to  maintaining 
equilibrium  in  fertility  through  commercial  fertilizers 
alone.  These  are  first,  the  cost,  and  second,  that  they  do 
not  materially  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 


b  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

They  do  not  add  to  the  humus  in  the  soil,  except 
through  increase  which  they  cause  in  root  production  in 
the  crops  grown.  The  presence  of  humus  is  necessary  to 
insure  the  most  efficient  action  possible  from  the  ferti- 
lizers, hence,  in  the  absence  of  long  continued  applications 
of  farmyard  manure  or  of  buried  crops,  they  do  not  stimu- 
late growth  as  they  otherwise  would. 

When  the  crops  grown  are  sold  and  shipped  away  from 
the  farm,  all  the  fertility  which  they  contain  of  course 
goes  with  them.  When  these  are  fed  to  live  stock  and  the 
fertilizer  resulting  is  put  back  upon  the  land,  it  is  possi- 
ble in  this  way  to  restore  to  the  land  from,  say  85  to  90 
per  cent  of  the  fertilizing  elements  that  were  taken  from 
it.  The  keeping  of  the  live  stock  also  necessitates,  more  or 
less,  the  growing  of  legumes  to  be  fed  to  them,  a  process 
which  tends  to  increase  the  nitrogen  content  in  the  soil, 
since  these  crops  deposit  in  the  soil  more  nitrogen 
gathered  from  the  air  than  is  sold  in  the  meat,  milk  or 
wool  made  from  feeding  them. 

In  some  instances,  the  fertility  may  be  sufficiently  main- 
tained through  keeping  live  stock  only,  at  1east  for  a  long 
term  of  years.  In  other  instances  it  may  be  maintained 
through  the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  only. 
The  former  finds  illustration  in  the  rich  lands  of  the 
prairie  states,  the  latter  in  the  grass  producing  lands  of 
the  alluvial  river  bottom  lands  of  the  eastern  states.  On 
ordinary  soils,  however,  fertility  may  be  most  evenly 
maintained  by  the  moderate  and  judicious  application  of 
commercial  fertilizers  in  conjunction  with  the  judicious 
maintenance  of  live  stock  . 

The  equilibrium  of  fertility  can  thus  be  maintained  and 
increased.  The  limit  to  such  increase  is  the  capacity  and  de- 
sire of  those  who  cultivate  the  soil.  With  increase  in  fertility, 
the  cost  of  growing  crops  will  decrease,  and  there  will  be  a 
proportionate  increase  in  profits.  To  maintain  such  equilib- 
rium in  fertility  is  probably  the  most  important  question  per- 
taining to  the  agriculture  of  this  country. 


LIVE   STOCK   AND  SUCCESSFUL  FARMING  7 

Bearing  upon  rotation. — By  rotation  is  meant  the 
growing  of  different  classes  of  crops  in  succession.  Crops 
differ  more  or  less  in  their  food  requirements,  that  is,  in  the 
extent  to  which  they  draw  on  certain  food  elements  in 
the  soil.  Some  call  for  more  nitrogen  than  others,  and  so 
of  the  different  food  elements,  hence,  when  one  crop  is 
grown  successively  on  the  same  land,  the  equilibrium  or 
balance  in  fertility  is  disturbed,  to  the  extent  of  reducing 
some  of  the  elements  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  so  much 
that  good  crops  of  that  class  cannot  longer  be  grown  upon 
the  land  without  it  is  in  some  way  renewed.  Other  evils 
accompany  such  a  process,  as  for  instance,  increase  in 
certain  forms  of  weed  growth,  increase  in  insects  which 
prey  upon  the  particular  crop  grown,  and  injury  to  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  land  through  depleting  it  of 
humus. 

These  evils  may  be  lessened,  and  in  a  great  measure 
prevented,  by  practicing  a  judicious  rotation.  Some  forms 
of  rotation  will  not,  in  a  marked  degree,  prevent  or  very 
much  lessen  the  evils  mentioned.  Such  is  a  rotation 
which  consists  in  the  growing  of  such  crops  only  as  the 
small  cereals,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  speltz  and  flax. 
This  is  owing  to  the  general  similarity  of  the  food  ele- 
ments on  which  they  feed,  and  to  the  fact  that  they  all 
reduce  the  humus  supply  in  the  soil. 

Rotation,  in  the  true  and  helpful  sense,  implies  that  live 
stock  shall  be  kept.  Where  kept,  they  consume  the  un- 
salable roughage  grown,  along  with  other  food,  and  thus 
give  back  to  the  land  each  of  the  elements  of  fertility 
taken  from  it.  They  do  this  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  food  is  fed  which  has  been  grown  upon  the 
farm,  and  to  the  care  and  promptness  exercised  in  putting 
back  again  upon  the  land,  the  fertilizer  resulting. 

The  fertilizer  thus  applied  tends  to  maintain  an  equilib- 
rium in  the  humus  supply  in  the  land.  It  does  this 
through  the  admixing  of  the  manure  with  the  soil  when 
cultivating  it.  The  humus  thus  supplied  improves  the 


8  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

soil  mechanically  by  making  it  more  friable  or  firm,  ac- 
cording to  its  texture.  It  also  increases  the  power  of  the 
soil  to  hold  moisture  and  the  nominal  elements  thus  ap- 
plied improve  the  chemical  condition  of  the  soil  while  in 
process  of  decay.  Should  the  question  be  asked,  why 
may  these  results  not  be  accomplished  as  well  by  grow- 
ing hay  to  be  marketed  or  by  burying  an  occasional  green 
crop,  the  answer  is  found  in  the  soil  depletion  to  which 
the  first  leads,  and  in  the  expense  involved  in  the  use  of 
the  land  while  the  green  crop  is  being  grown. 

Again,  the  keeping  of  live  stock  compels  the  mainte- 
nance of  pastures  on  the  farm.  In  this  fact  is  found  one  of 
the  most  beneficial  influences.  Pasturing  land  does  not  al- 
ways completely  hinder  soil  depletion,  but  it  greatly  re- 
duces it,  since  the  product  removed  consists  mainly  of 
soil  fertility  used  in  making  meat,  milk  or  wool,  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  same  is  true  of  hay  crops  grown  and 
fed  on  the  farm. 

Both  pasture  and  hay  crops  lessen  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense of  cultivation  in  proportion  as  they  are  grown,  but 
the  saving  in  both  respects  is  greater  by  far  in  pasture 
crops.  The  economy  of  maintaining  pastures,  and  of 
properly  maintaining  them,  has  never  been  fully  appre- 
ciated in  American  agriculture.  The  expense  involved 
in  maintaining  fences  to  some  extent  lessens  the  economy 
in  maintaining  pastures,  but  in  ordinary  mixed  farming 
their  maintenance  is  an  absolute  necessity  in  order  to 
properly  rotate  the  crops. 

The  influence  of  pastures  temporary  in  character  in 
supplying  the  land  with  humus  is  very  great.  They  fur- 
nish soil  with  sod  or  vegetable  matter,  which  in  its  slow 
decay  benefits  the  soil  as  described  above.  As  a  result, 
the  crops  which  follow  the  breaking  up  of  the  pastures 
will  probably  be  benefited  for  several  years.  Results 
similar  in  kind,  but  frequently  less  in  degree,  follow  the 
breaking  up  of  meadows.  These  usuallv  have  a  less  dense 
sod  than  pastures 


LIVE   STOCK   AND   SUCCESSFUL   FARMING  9 

Bearing  on  cheap  foods. — On  every  farm  more  or  less 
food  is  grown  that  is  of  but  little  value  when  sold  in  the 
open  market.  In  some  instances,  it  is  quite  unsalable, 
and  yet,  if  fed  to  animals,  its  value  would  be  considerable. 
It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  on  many  farms  the 
revenue  derived  from  thus  utilizing  what  would  otherwise 
be  waste  material,  makes  up  the  principal,  if  not  the  en- 
tire, of  the  net  revenue  derived  from  the  farm. 

On  farms  devoted  mainly  or  exclusively  to  producing 
grain  which  is  sold,  the  straw,  the  gleanings  amid  the 
stubbles,  and  the  screenings  of  the  grain  are  entirely  lost 
to  the  farm  where  no"  live  stock  are  k3pt.  The  straw, 
much  of  which  has  a  considerable  feeding  value,  is 
burned.  The  weeds  and  the  grass  which  grow  amid  the 
stubbles  and  which  sheep  could  turn  into  good  mutton, 
are  not  only  practically  valueless,  but  become  a  positive 
menace  to  clean  farming.  The  .numerous  grain  heads 
which  fall  to  the  ground  whib  the  grain  is  being  har- 
vested, and  which  swine  could  turn  into  good  pork, 
molder  in  decay.  The  screenings,  consisting  of  small  and 
shriveled  kernels  and  weed  seeds,  become  the  property,  and 
without  any  exchange,  of  those  who  buy  the  grain. 

Where  mixed  farming  is  practiced,  large  quantities  of 
fodder  and  low  grade  grain  are  grown,  which  can  only  be 
turned  to  good  account  by  feeding  it  out  to  live  stock. 
Such  is  straw  of  various  kinds,  hay  that  is  coarse,  weedy 
or  much  damaged  by  rain,  corn  stover,  and  grain  that  is 
so  light  or  injured  in  harvesting  that  it  grades  low.  Some 
of  these  products  will,  under  some  conditions,  not  pay  the 
labor  of  marketing,  others  will  be  in  a  manner  sacrificed 
because  of  the  low  price  paid,  and  for  some  there  is  vir- 
tually no  market,  other  than  that  which  the  farm  fur- 
nishes. To  the  first  class  belong  such  products  as  oat 
and  pea  straw,  which,  when  cut  at  the  right  season  and 
well  cured,  have  a  higher  feeding  value  than  poor  hay, 
To  the  second  belong  such  foods  as  inferior  or  dam- 
aged hay  and  some  kinds  of  coarse  grains.  Such  hay  may 


10  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

have  a  considerable  feeding  value,  and  baney  so  stained 
by  exposure  as  to  be  greatly  discounted  in  price  in  the 
market  will  make  as  much  and  as  valuable  meat,  milk  or 
wool,  and  will  sustain  as  much  labor  as  barley  that  sells 
for  the  highest  price.  To  the  third  class  belongs  corn 
stover,  every  acre  of  which  is  about  equal  to  the  produce 
of  an  acre  of  hay  for  feeding  uses,  and  yet  millions  of 
acres  of  this  valuable  food  go  back  to  earth  ungathered 
every  year,  because  the  production  is  in  excess  of  the 
needs  of  the  live  stock  kept. 

There  are  also  by-products  from  the  dairy,  the  orchard 
and  the  garden,  which  usually  can  only  be  given  a  money 
value  by  feeding  them  on  the  farm.  Such  are  skim  milk, 
fallen  fruit,  unmarketable  potatoes  and  the  unsalable 
parts  of  vegetables.  Nearly  all  kinds  of  field  root  crops 
also,  to  be  profitable,  must  be  fed  upon  the  farm.  The 
utilization  of  all  these  products  in  the  way  indicated,  may 
alone  constitute  the  difference  between  successful  and  un- 
successful farming. 

Bearing  on  transportation. — The  consumption  of  the 
food  grown  upon  the  farm  through  the  medium  of  live 
stock  invariably  cheapens  the  cost  of  marketing  the  prod- 
uct, whether  marketed  nearby  or  through  the  medium 
of  railroad  transportation.  A  ton  of  hay,  for  instance, 
is  marketed  more  cheaply,  viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  transportation,  in  the  form  of  meat,  milk,  butter,  cheese 
or  wool  than  it  can  be  through  the  medium  of  wagon  or 
railroad  transportation.  As  previously  shown,  many  prod- 
ucts grown  upon  the  farm  cannot  be  sold  profitably  or 
sold  at  all  in  the  open  market.  (See  p.  4.) 

The  cost  of  transportation  frequently  makes  the  ship- 
ment of  bulky  foods  prohibitory.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  foods  other  than  concentrates,  and  is  more  es- 
pecially true  of  transportation  where  more  than  one  road 
carries  the  product  to  its  destination,  each  road  making 
its  own  rate.  Because  of  the  increased  charges  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  through  rate  and  also  for  other  reasons,  it  is,  in 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  II 

some  instances,  easily  possible  for  the  European  farmer 
to  buy  American  grown  products  and  to  feed  them  to  live 
stock  at  a  profit,  while  the  American  farmer  who  is  dis- 
tant from  the  place  of  production  is  unable  to  do  so.  The 
New  England  dairyman  or  feeder  could  turn  to  excellent 
account  the  cheap  hay  grown  in  the  upper  Mississippi 
basin,  but  the  cost  of  transportation  makes  prohibitory 
the  feeding  of  such  food  upon  his  farm.  Notwithstand- 
ing, the  New  England  factory  employe  is  able  to  stand 
the  cost  of  transporting  the  same  hay  virtually  to  the 
same  market  in  the  form  of  butter  or  cheese. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  with  decision  the  saving  in 
transportation  by  turning  bulky  foods,  and  even  concen- 
trates, into  the  still  more  concentrated  forms  of  meat, 
milk  and  other  products  of  the  dairy.  This  will  be  in- 
fluenced first  by  the  relative  reduction  in  weight  ef- 
fected, the  relative  advance  in  value  of  the  finished  prod- 
uct in  a  given  market  compared  with  the  value  of  the 
materials  used  in  making  it,  and  relative  freight  charges 
on  these  products.  The  influence  last  p-entioned  will  not 
be  discussed  here  since  it  is,  to  so  great  an  extent,  a  vary- 
ing factor. 

The  saving  in  weight  effected  by  feeding  foods  in  the 
form  of  animal  products  is  proportionate  to  the  bulkiness 
or  the  opposite  of  the  foods  fed ;  to  the  relative  nutrition 
in  these  in  proportion  to  weight;  to  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  bulky  foods  and  concentrates  that  are  fed,  and  to 
the  degree  of  the  concentration  in  the  animal  product 
made  from  these  foods.  It  is  apparent,  of  course,  that  the 
greater  the  bulk,  the  less  the  nutrition  ;  the  larger  the  pro- 
portion of  bulky  foods  fed  and  the  less  concentrated  the 
forms  into  which  the  foods  are  changed,  the  less  rela- 
tively will  be  the  saving  effected  in  transportation.  While 
the  amount  of  the  saving  effected  on  the  basis  of  reduced 
weight  from  transforming  food  for  animals  into  animal 
products  cannot  be  given  with  precision,  it  may  be  stated 
approximately.  To  make  2  pounds  of  meat  per  day  from 


12  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

a  good  1,000  pound  steer  that  is  being  fattened  would 
call  for  say  30  pounds  of  good  clover  hay  and  grain,  of 
which,  say  12  pounds  would  be  grain.  The  reduction  in 
the  weight  to  be  transported  as  meat,  compared  with  the 
food  used  in  making  it,  would  be  28  pounds  or  93  per  cent. 
To  secure  22  pounds  of  milk  per  day  from  a  dairy  cow  of 
similar  weight  during  a  prolonged  period  of  feeding 
would  call  for  say  36  pounds  of  the  same  kinds  of  food, 
of  which  say  8  pounds  would  be  grain.  The  reduction 
in  this  instance  is  14  pounds  or  39  per  cent.  Suppose 
that  the  milk  is  made  into  cheese  and  that  10  pounds  are 
allowed  for  I  pound  of  cheese.  The  reduction  in  freight 
would  be  33.8  pounds  or  94  per  cent.  Suppose  again  the 
milk  is  made  into  butter,  and  that  the  22  pounds  of  milk 
make  I  pound  of  butter,  then  the  reduction  in  freight  is 
35  pounds  or  97  per  cent.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  the  re- 
duction in  freight  from  turning  food  Into  these  respec- 
tive products  increases  in  the  following  order:  Milk, 
beef,  cheese  and  butter.  It  is  further  apparent  that  while 
butter,  beef  and  cheese  may  be  readily  transported  to 
long  distances,  the  transporting  of  milk  must  always  be 
circumscribed  by  distance,  because  of  its  relative  weight 
in  proportion  to  the  food  products  from  which  it  is  made. 
That  the  degree  of  the  advance  in  value  of  the  finished 
product,  as  compared  with  the  value  of  the  foods  used  in 
making  it  has  an  important  bearing  on  transportation, 
may  be  readily  shown.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a 
given  amount  of  food  is  turned  into  butter.  It  has  been 
shown  that  the  weight  to  be  transported  is  reduced  by 
97  per  cent.  But  suppose  that  in  the  one  instance,  the 
butter  sold  at  the  point  of  destination  for  20  cents  per 
pound  and  in  the  other  instance  for  25  cents.  The  butter 
which  brought  the  larger  return  was  carried  at  the  same 
rate  as  that  which  was  sold  at  the  lower  price,  which 
means,  virtually,  less  cost  in  relation  to  the  return  for  the 
weight  transported. 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  13 

It  has  also  been  shown  that  but  for  'such  transforma- 
tion through  feeding  certain  products,  they  could  not  be 
sold  at  all.  (See  p.  4.)  The  home  market  thus 
created,  as  it  were,  for  foods  otherwise  unsalable,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  benefits  from  stock  keeping.  It  not  only  ob- 
viates waste  which  would  otherwise  be  unavoidable,  but 
it  greatly  increases  profits.  It  also  encourages  the  growth 
of  many  products  that  would  not  otherwise  be  grown, 
thus  widening  diversity  in  crop  production. 

Bearing  on  labor. — Stocking  farms  partially,  or  to  the 
full  extent  of  their  capacity,  has  an  important  bearing  on 
the  question  of  farm  labor.  Thh  bearing  is  proportionate 
to  the  extent  to  which  the  farm  is  stocked.  It  tends  to 
the  distribution  of  labor  throughout  the  year,  exercises  an 
important  influence  on  the  relations  between  the  farmer 
and  the  farmhand,  and  furnishes  profitable  work  for  every 
member  of  the  family,  according  to  the  capacity  of  each. 

The  growing  of  live  stock  distributes  labor  throughout 
the  whole  year:  (i)  Through  the  diversity  in  crop  pro- 
duction, which  it  necessitates;  (2)  through  the  ever 
present  necessity  of  providing  food  for  the  animals  kept ; 
and  (3)  through  the  labor  entailed  at  certain  seasons  and 
with  certain  foods  in  preparing  these  for  being  fed. 

Those  farmers  who  grow  but  one  kind  of  crop  from 
year  to  year  are  only  busy  when  growing  that  crop  and 
marketing  the  same.  Those  who  add  to  the  number  of 
crops  grown  and  marketed  directly,  extend  the  period  for 
labor  in  proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  the 
crops  grown.  Nevertheless,  in  the  latter  instance,  there 
will  be  a  period  of  idleness  as  well  as  in  the  former, 
though  not  so  prolonged.  But  the  keeping  of  live  stock 
on  arable  farms  compels  the  farmer  to  widen  his  rotation 
in  order  to- provide  the  requisite  foods  for  the  same,  and 
usually  to  the  extent  of  making  ample  employment 
throughout  the  entire  season  of  growth. 

Animals,  like  the  human  family,  must  have  sustenance, 
and  they  must  have  it  during  every  day  in  the  year. 


14  DEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Where  they  are  to  give  the  highest  possible  return,  they 
must  have  food  supplied  them  at  certain  intervals.  The 
owner  must  in  some  way  supply  this  food,  and  should  do 
it  as  cheerfully  and  as  faithfully  as  the  uncomplaining 
mother  prepares  food  from  day  to  day  for  the  household. 
Work  horses  need  currying  from  day  to  day,  cows  must 
be  milked  at  least  twice  a  day  and  stables  must  be  cleaned 
daily,  thus  entailing  the  blessed  necessity  of  laboring  more 
or  less  every  day  in  the  year. 

The  proper  preparing  of  foods  for  winter  feeding  us- 
ually involves  much  labor.  It  may  and  does  usually  in- 
clude such  processes  as  grinding  grain,  shredding  or  chaf- 
fing fodders,  slicing  or  pulping  roots,  soaking,  steaming  or 
boiling  foods  for  certain  classes  of  live  stock,  and  blend- 
ing foods  so  as  to  increase  their  efficiency  when  fed.  The 
labor  thus  created  gives  employment,  and  where  wisely 
directed,  should  prove  remunerative. 

Growing  farm  stock  exercises  a  salutary  influence  on 
the  frequently  vexatious  question  of  farm  labor:  (i)  By 
creating  employment  for  farmhands  through  all  the  year ; 
(2)  by  adding  to  the  permanency  of  such  labor,  and  (3) 
by  the  bearing  which  it  has  upon  the  price  of  labor. 

When  farm  hands  are  only  employed  for  a  portion  of 
the  year,  but  one  of  two  results  must  follow:  they  must 
remain  idle  through  a  part  of  th^  year,  or  secure  employ- 
ment in  some  other  line  of  work,  and  at  a  season  when 
employment  is  hard  to  get,  that  is,  in  the  winter.  Live 
stock  call  for  more  attention  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
and  thus  necessitate  the  employment  of  labor  at  that 
season. 

Permanency  of  employment  must  be  given  to  the  farm 
laborer  who  is  to  remain  in  this  line  of  work,  and  who  is 
to  excel  in  the  same.  It  is  unreasonable  to  expect  any 
one  to  continue  in  any  line  of  work  which  furnishes  em- 
ployment for  only  a  portion  of  the  year.  The  best  farm 
laborers,  thus  treated,  must  drift  into  other  lines  of  work. 
Those  only  will  remain  whose  unstable  habits  unfit  them 
for  permanency  in  any  line  of  work. 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  15 

Employment  throughout  the  year  will'  act  as  a  regu- 
lator of  farm  wages,  as  men  who  work  on  a  farm  12 
months  in  the  year  can  work  for  lower  wages  per  month 
than  those  who  work  but  eight  months.  Men  who  are 
given  but  eight  months  wages,  which  represents  main- 
tenance for  one  year,  must  get  more  per  month  than  men 
who  can  maintain  themselves  by  laboring  all  the  year. 

The  maintenance  of  live  stock  furnishes  profitable  em- 
ployment to  all  the  members  of  the  farmer's  family,  by 
giving  work  to  each,  according  to  the  capacity  and  sex. 
The  benefits  resulting  are:  (i)  Increased  efficiency  in  la- 
boring with  the  hands;  (2)  the  formation  of  industrious 
habits,  and  (3)  increase  in  profits. 

At  a  very  early  age  members  of  the  family  may  feed 
fowls,  when  a  little  more  advanced,  they  can  care  for 
sheep  and  other  small  animals.  Later,  both  boys  and 
girls  can  aid  in  the  milking,  and  still  later,  the  boys  take 
part  in  the  more  laborious  work  of  preparing  foods. 

Each  is  exercised  in  using  the  hands  in  manual  labor  at 
an  age  when  such  labor  is  not  only  helpful  to  physical 
development,  but  when  it  is  greatly  helpful  to  future  use- 
fulness. The  individual  not  trained  to  use  the  hands  un- 
til matured  can  never  become  so  expert  in  the  use  of  the 
same  as  if  such  training  had  been  given  at  an  earlier 
period.  The  most  skillful  axemen  of  America  are  those 
who  were  exercised  in  swinging  the  axe  from  the  time 
that  they  were  first  able  to  swing  it. 

The  value  of  habits  of  industry  will  be  discussed  under 
the  sub-division  of  the  subject  following.  But  it  may  be 
said  in  passing,  that  it  is  the  habits  of  industry  that  are 
formed  in  early  life  in  the  members  of  the  farmer's  family 
that,  more  than  anything  else,  aids  in  making  them  the 
foremost  builders  of  the  nation. 

The  members  of  the  family  in  this  way  become  wage- 
earners  at  a  relatively  early  period,  which  adds  to  the 
profits  of  the  farm  by  increasing  the  resources  without 


1 6  .       FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

increasing  the  wage  bill.  While  thus  engaged,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  home  have  the  great  advantage  of  parental 
oversight,  and  they  enjoy  all  'the  privileges  which  home 
furnishes.  In  the  absence  of  live  stock  on  farms,  family 
labor  can  only  be  remunerative  through  the  growing  sea- 
son. With  live  stock  it  becomes  remunerative  through 
all  the  year. 

Bearing  on  industry. — Stocking  farms  to  their  full 
capacity  tends  in  a  marked  degree  to  the  promotion  of 
industry  in  rural  communities  and  to  the  formation  of 
industrious  habits  of  young  people  who  are  reared  on 
such  farms.  These  results  are  brought  about:  (i)  By  the 
increase  in  labor  thus  necessitated;  (2)  through  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  same  over  the  entire  year.  The  habits  of 
industry  thus  maintained  in  the  parents  and  begotten  and 
developed  in  the  children,  are  of  inestimable  value  to 
rural  communities,  to  industrial  centers,  and  to  the  entire 
nation. 

The  increase  in  labor  thus  necessitated  has  been  dealt 
with  in  part  in  the  sub-division  preceding.  It  has  been 
shown  that  such  increase  in  labor  is  necessitated  through 
the  necessity  for  a  wider  rotation,  through  the  preparing 
of  foods  for  feeding  and  through  feeding  and  caring  for 
the  animals.  To  this  may  be  added  the  statement  that 
such  labor  increases  the  farmer's  profits,  as  a  rule,  and  for 
this  reason  if  for  no  other,  it  is  to  be  commended. 

It  increases  his  profits  in  various  ways,  (see  p.  2)  but 
more  probably  than  in  any  other  way  through  the  added 
value  given  to  farm  products  by  converting  them  into 
more  valuable  forms.  In  this  way  every  farm  home  thus 
managed  becomes  a  factory  in  which  foods  in  the  raw 
form,  so  to  speak,  are  manufactured  into  what  may  be 
termed  finished  form.  The  parents  are  the  managers  of 
this  factory  and  all  the  members  of  the  family  are  co- 
operative partners  in  it.  Turning  coarse  fodders,  field 
roots  and  screenings  which  may  have  practically  no  value 
on  the  farm  into  butter  worth  20  to  25  cents  per  pound 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  17 

furnishes  an  illustration  of  such  profitable  transformation 
of  food  products. 

The  significance  of  distributing  labor  on  the  farm 
throughout  the  year,  lies  not  so  much  in  the  greater  prof- 
its, which  in  the  end  it  usually  leads  to,  as  in  the  salutary 
moral  influence  which  it  exerts  on  the  farmer  and  his 
household.  Those  who  grow  and  sell  grain  only  are 
overcrowded  with  work  during  seedtime  and  harvest, 
while  at  other  seasons  they  are  unduly  idle.  The  influence 
on  the  parents  is  not  good.  It  gives  the  husband  too 
much  time  to  discuss  the  policies  of  the  nation  in  the  gro- 
cery and  gives  his  wife  so  much  time  to  visit  her  sisters, 
as  to  militate  against  good  housekeeping.  But  the  chil- 
dren become  the  chief  sufferers.  They  have  a  period  of 
practically  enforced  idleness  during  much  of  the  year, 
notwithstanding  that  they  attend  some  school.  This  is 
most  unfortunate  for  the  reason,  first,  that  they  do  not 
become  inured  to  physical  labor  during  the  formative 
period,  and  second,  that  such  enforced  idleness  makes 
labor  distasteful  through  the  inertia  which  it  leads  to.  In 
this  way  encouragement  is  given  to  drifting  from  the 
farm. 

The  importance  of  thus  developing  habits  of  industry 
in  the  young  people  who  grow  up  in  farm  homes  cannot 
be  easily  overestimated.  Such  habits  usually  make  the 
difference  between  success  and  the  want  of  success  in 
farming.  It  is  the  possession  of  these  more  than  anything 
else  that  makes  men  reared  on  the  farm  leaders  in  indus- 
trial centers  when  they  center  their  thought  on  industrial 
lines  of  work.  They  also  tend  to  higher  and  more  stable 
citizenship  wherever  they  are  possessed. 

Bearing  on  intelligence. — The  general  influence  which 
the  growing  and  feeding  of  farm  animals  exercises  on  the 
general  intelligence  of  those  thus  engaged  is  unquestion- 
ably beneficent.  This  is  evidenced  (i)  in  the  nature  of 
the  work,  (2)  in  the  necessities  to  which  it  gives  rise,  and 
(3)  in  the  equipment  called  for  if  it  is  to  be  successfully 


1 8  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

prosecuted.  It  is  not  the  thought  here  to  draw  invidious 
distinctions  between  farmers  engaged  in  different  lines  of 
work,  but  rather  to  show  the  greater  complexity  of  the 
problems  of  growing  live  stock  as  compared  with  those 
in  some  other  lines  of  farming,  and  consequently  the 
greater  skill  that  must  be  intelligently  exercised  where 
the  work  is  to  be  a  marked  success. 

The  most  simple  style  of  agriculture  that  can  be  prac- 
ticed is  that  pursued  in  pastoral  districts  where  those  who 
practice  it  lead  the  life  of  nomads.  The  skill  called  for 
in  such  farming  relates  chiefly  to  the  selection  of  pastures 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  flock.  Tilling  virgin  lands 
on  the  one  crop  system  is  a  little  more  complex,  as  it  in- 
volves the  use  of  implements  of  tillage.  Rotating  crops 
calls  for  more  thought  and  skill,  since  the  habits  of  growth 
in  these  differ,  and  consequently  the  requisites  to  produce 
growth  differ  correspondingly.  When  fertility  wanes, 
those  who  grow  crops  must  use  some  kind  of  fertilizers. 
The  proper  use  of  these  compels  thought  and  so  leads,  of 
necessity,  to  higher  intelligence.  When  live  stock  are  in- 
troduced, additional  factors  of  complication  come  with 
them,  owing  to  the  necessities  of  the  animals  them- 
selves. 

The  necessities  of  the  animals  in  the  lines  of  food  and 
shelter  on  arable  farms  compel  diversity  of  a  certain 
kind  to  provide  suitable  food,  the  erection  of  buildings  to 
provide  suitable  shelter,  preparing  the  foods  when  nec- 
essary to  make  them  more  suitable  and  feeding  them  in 
balance  to  make  them  more  effective.  The  stock  grower 
who  does  not  understand  how  to  do  all  this  with  a  fair 
measure  of  efficiency  is  not  properly  equipped  for  his  bus- 
iness. 

Efficient  equipment  on  the  part  of  the  stock  raiser  in- 
volves a  reasonable  knowledge,  at  least,  of  the  principles 
that  relate  to  the  selection  of  animals  for  rearing,  breed- 
ing or  feeding,  of  those  that  govern  development  in  its 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  19 

various  phases  and  stages,  of  those  that  -relate  to  the  se- 
lection of  foods,  of  those  that  govern  digestion  and  also 
of  those  that  tend  to  promote  the  comfort  and  well  being 
of  the  animals.  It  also  calls  for  a  reasonable  under- 
standing of  the  knowledge  of  relative  values  of  animals 
of  different  types  and  at  different  stages  of  development, 
of  the  relative  value  of  foods  and  finished  meat  and  milk 
products  that  may  be  made  from  them,  and  the  various 
details  of  management  that  lead  to  higher  achievement 
in  breeding,  feeding  and  producing  a  finished  product  of 
high  relative  value. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  plainly  evident  that  the 
individual  who  attains  to  high  success  in  stock  keeping 
must  be  a  close  observer,  a  correct  thinker,  a  careful  bus- 
iness man,  an  untiring  student  of  valuable  live  stock 
literature  and  unsparing  in  his  attentions  to  the  needs 
of  the  animals  which  he  keeps.  In  other  words,  he  must 
be  possessed  of  intelligence  and  industry  in  no  small  de- 
gree. 

Bearing  upon  development. — The  growing  of  live 
stock  not  only  tends  to  advance  intelligence  as  outlined  in  the 
preceding  sub-sections,  but  it  would  also  appear  to  have 
inherently  a  favorable  influence  on  both  physical  and 
intellectual  development.  This  may  be  shown:  (i)  In 
the  fact  that  the  foremost  nations,  both  ancient  and 
modern  were  consumers  of  animal  products  in  addition 
to  vegetable  products,  including  fruits;  (2)  that  people 
who  have  lived  entirely  or  mainly  on  flesh  alone  or  on 
vegetables  alone,  have  never  stood  in  the  front  rank 
among  the  peoples  of  the  earth,  and  (3)  that  these  re- 
sults are  the  typical  outcome  of  supreme  wisdom  and 
design  in  the  arrangement  which  results  in  the 
growth  of  products  from  the  soil  that  may  be  consumed 
directly  by  man ;  of  other  products  that  can  only  be  pre- 
pared for  human  consumption  by  the  animals  that  feed 
upon  them,  and  in  the  bestowment  of  animals  capable  of 
thus  transforming  their  foods. 


2O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

That  the  foremost  nations  of  the  earth  intellectually 
and  physically  were  consumers  of  both  animal  and  veg- 
etable products  is  shown  in  a  marked  degree  in  ancient 
times  by  the  history  of  the  Jews,  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans.  These  nations  produced  the  finest  specimens  of 
the  human  race  in  the  olden  times,  viewed  from  both 
standpoints  when  taken  together.  In  the  more  recent 
centuries  the  Anglo-Saxon  peoples  have  forged  away  TO 
the  front  as  evidenced  in  the  relative  position  held  by 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  and  more  recently  by  the 
United  States,  at  one  time  a  British  Colony.  These  races 
are  the  greatest  relative  consumers  of  animal  products 
in  the  world.  In  the  consumption  of  these  products  per 
capita,  the  United  States  stands  first  among  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  and  where,  it  may  be  asked,  among  all 
these  nations,  can  the  superior  of  the  average  American 
be  found  in  physical  and  intellectual  development. 

The  low  development  intellectually  of  the  peoples  who 
live  entirely  or  mainly  on  the  flesh  of  animals  is  shown 
in  the  history  of  the  barbarous  races  of  both  ancient  and 
modern  days.  Such  races  have  never  wielded  an  impor- 
tant influence  in  shaping  the  destinies  of  the  human  fam- 
ily. They  vanish  in  the  presence  of  the  more  aggressive 
races  whose  food  blends  in  reasonable  equilibrium,  grains, 
vegetables,  fruits  and  animal  products,  as  illustrated  in 
the  present  condition  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  North  Amer- 
ica. The  showing  is  some  better  with  peoples  who  live 
mainly  on  vegetable  products,  as  in  the  case  of  some  of 
the  nations  of  southeastern  Asia,  but  none  of  these  now 
occupy  or  have  ever  occupied  that  high  position  relatively 
which  has  been  accorded  to  the  nations  above  referred 
to,  whose  people  have  fed  on  animal  and  vegetable 
products. 

Had  no  provision  been  made  by  the  Creator  for  sus- 
taining man  except  through  the  growth  of  products  from 
the  soil  to  be  consumed  directly,  then  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  nature's  energy  in  production  would  be. ex- 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  21 

pended  in  vain,  since  many  of  earth's  products  would  be 
consumed  to  no  purpose  so  far  as  man  is  concerned.  This 
would  be  true  of  the  major  portion  of  the  products  on 
which  domestic  animals  feed.  It  would  deprive  the  hu- 
man family  of  milk,  the  most  valuable  single  food  prod- 
uct ever  given  to  the  world.  It  would  mean  that  nearly 
all  the  coarser  grains  now  grown  would  not  be  grown, 
from  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  incentive  to  grow  them, 
and  that  the  by-products  of  all  grains  grown,  as  bran  and 
gluten  meal,  would  be  a  waste,  from  the  want  of  animals 
to  consume  them.  On  the  other  hand,  should  animals  only 
be  grown  in  any  considerable  numbers,  then  their  only 
use  would  be  to  furnish  hides.  The  carcasses,  so  valuable 
now,  would  then  be  naught  but  waste.  Nor  does  it  re- 
move the  difficulty  to  say  that  domestic  animals  capable 
of  milk  production  were  given  for  that  purpose  only, 
as  this  still  leaves  unexplained  the  great  problem  as  to 
why  half  the  entire  number  of  the  milk  giving  classes  of  ani- 
mals are  males,  and  therefore,  incapable  of  milk  giving.  The 
evident  mission,  therefore,  of  all  domestic  animals  is  to  util- 
ize the  products  of  the  soil  for  man's  advantage  and  they 
accomplish  this  by  turning  their  products  into  other  food 
forms,  into  materials  for  clothing  and  into  energy  to  fur- 
nish labor. 

It  does  not  follow  that  some  examples  of  unusual 
strength  of  body  and  mind  may  not  be  found  among  men 
who  subsist  wholly  on  flesh  or  wholly  on  vegetables. 
In  communities  which  subsist  mainly  on  a  mixed  diet  of 
animal  and  vegetable  products,  much  of  this  may  be  due 
to  inheritance.  But  it  does  follow,  that  rulers  of  the 
world  are  just  about  certain  to  be  consumers  of  such  prod- 
ucts and  that,  therefore,  animals  must  be  grown  in  ever 
increasing  numbers  as  the  population  increases  in  such 
countries,  in  order  to  provide  them  with  foods  so  inti- 
mately related  to  national  supremacy. 

Bearing  on  farm  life. — The  growing  of  live  stock  has 
an  exceedingly  important  bearing  on  the  interest  taken 


22  -          FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

in  farm  life,  and  the  pleasure  derived  from  it,  and  it  cer- 
tainly tends  more  than  any  other  phase  of  agriculture 
to  moor  the  young  people  of  the  farm  to  farm  life.  It 
adds  to  the  pleasure  of  life  on  a  farm :  ( i )  By  the  closer 
bond  that  exists  between  the  human  family  and  animal 
life  than  is  possible  between  men  and  plants,  (2)  by  in- 
creasing the  profits  derived  from  the  farm,  and  (3)  by 
making  it  possible  to  multiply  farms  as  the  necessity  for 
so  doing  increases. 

The  bond  between  humanity  and  plant  life  can  never 
be  so  close  as  that  between  humanity  and  animal  life. 
In  the  very  nature  of  things  it  cannot  be,  since  in  plants 
there  is  no  response  to  attentions  from  the  human  fam- 
ily other  than  the  dumb  response  of  growth.  In  addition, 
from  animals  there  is  the  response  of  submission  and 
more  or  less  of  friendly  feeling,  which  is  closely  allied  to 
gratitude.  In  fact,  it  would  almost  seem  as  though  domes- 
tic animals  were  more  uniformly  grateful  for  attentions 
bestowed  than  man.  "The  ox  knoweth  his  owner  and  the 
ass  his  master's  crib,  but  my  people  do  not  know." 

This  reciprocity  as  it  were  between  human  and  animal 
life  is  inherent  in  many  ways,  and  it  begets  between 
young  people  and  their  pets  what  cannot  otherwise  be  ex- 
pressed so  well  as  by  the  use  of  the  term  affection.  This 
is  evidenced  in  the  disconsolate  grie'f  sometimes  shown 
by  a  little  maiden  of  the  farm  over  the  loss  of  a  pet  lamb 
torn  by  dogs.  It  is  also  evidenced  in  the  innate  bond 
that  exists  between  young  boys  and  their  pet  dogs.  This 
bond  would  seem  to  be  stronger  in  some  instances  than 
the  bond  between  David  and  Jonathan.  The  thrill  of 
feeling  that  comes  to  the  farm  girl  in  witnessing  the 
rapid  trooping  of  fowls  into  her  presence  in  response 
to  her  call  is  such  as  never  can  come  from  feeding  plants. 
The  thoughts  of  the  pets  of  the  farm  in  those  early  days 
are  thoughts  that  linger,  and  who  can  measure  the  influ- 
ence which  they  have  wielded  in  the  decision  reached 


LIVE    STOCK    AND    SUCCESSFUL    FARMING  23 

to  stay  on  the  farm,  when  inclination  and  outside  influ- 
ences pulled  in  an  opposite  direction.  The  bond  between  a 
grown  person  on  the  farm  and  the  members  of  his  herd  or 
flock  is  also  strong  in  a  large  proportion  of  instances.  This 
is  evidenced  in  the  regret  which  the  farm  matron 
feels  when  she  sees  a  favorite  cow  of  the  herd  driven 
away  to  the  shambles,  and  in  the  disturbing  thought 
that  comes  to  the  farmer  when  a  herd  or  flock  which  he 
has  been  feeding  for  months  is  driven  away  for  slaughter. 
Such  thoughts  never  come  into  the  mind  when  grains 
are  sold  or  any  other  class  of  vegetable  products,  and 
they  evidence  the  fact  that  the  relations  between  the  far- 
mer and  his  dumb  dependents  were  to  him  a  source  of 
pleasure  while  they  lasted. 

The  increase  in  the  profits  of  the  farm  through  the 
keeping  of  live  stock  has  already  been  discussed.  (See 
p.  2.)  When  such  increased  profits  are  wisely  and 
promptly  shared  with  the  members  of  the  family  who 
help  to  earn  them,  the  bond  becomes  still  stronger,  which 
binds  them  to  the  farm. 

The  keeping  of  live  stock  on  arable  farms  is  of  that 
character  known  as  intensive.  It  creates  labor  (see  p.  n). 
Because  it  does,  it  makes  possible  more  of  sub-division 
in  farms  than  would  be  possible  under  other  conditions 
of  farming.  This  results  in  increase  and  greater  prox- 
imity of  farm  homes,  with  all  the  benefits  which  flow 
from  the  same  to  the  schools  and  churches  in  rural  parts, 
to  social  life,  to  the  municipality,  to  the  adjacent  villages 
and  towns  and  to  the  nation  at  large. 

The  great  relative  importance  of  live  stock  has  been 
dwelt  upon  at  length  because  of  its  importance.  The  part 
that  it  is  playing  and  the  far  greater  part  that  it  is  going 
to  play  in  building  high  the  pillar  of  the  nation's  prosper- 
ity, are  but  dimly  understood  by  farmers  even  in  the 
aggregate.  Hence,  the  justification  for  trying  to  impress 
this  thought  upon  the  student  of  agriculture,  when  cross- 
ing the  threshold  of  a  treatise  on  Feeding  Farm  Animals. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PRINCIPLES  THAT  GOVERN  THE  SELECTION 
OF  ANIMALS. 

Selecting  animals,  in  relative  importance,  towers  away 
upward,  head  and  shoulders  above  the  other  principles 
that  govern  feeding.  Though  each  of  these  should  be 
scrupulously  observed,  if  the  principle  governing  selec 
tion  is  violated,  marked  success  will  be  unattainable.  In 
proportion  to  the  measure  of  such  violation,  will  be  the 
want  of  success.  So  broad  is  it  that  it  involves  nearly 
every  consideration  relating  to  breeding,  and  many  con 
siderations  relating  to  previous  management,  and  yet,  in 
discussing  it,  the  aim  will  be  to  narrow  the  discussion 
down  to  all  possible  brevity  of  statement  not  inconsistent 
with  clearness  in  the  same. 

Prominent-  among  the  principles  that  govern  selection 
are:  (i)  Those  that  relate  to  adaptation  in  the  sense  of  re- 
quirement or  use  ;  (2)  to  inheritance ;  (3)  to  type  or  form 
(4)  to  quality;  (5)  to  transmission;  (6)  to  adaptation  in 
its  relation  to  environment ;  and  (7)  to  the  indications  of 
good  health.  The  aim  has  been  to  state  those  principles 
in  the  order  of  relative  importance,  except  the  last,  which 
manifestly  may  exercise  a  qualifying  influence  on  all  the 
others,  but  coming  light  on  these  questions  may  show  the 
necessity  for  rearrangement. 

Adaptation  to  requirement. — Adaptation  in  the  sense 
requirement  or  use  has  reference  to  the  object  or  objects 
for  which  animals  are  kept.  In  the  nature  of  things  these 
objects  vary  greatly  in  the  different  classes  of  domestic 
animals,  and  they  frequently  differ  considerably  in  ani- 
mals of  the  same  class,  but  of  different  breeding.  Some 
horses,  for  instance,  are  wanted  for  labor  only,  some  for 
driving  only,  and  some  for  both  uses.  Some  cattle  are 

24 


THE  SELECTION  OF  ANIMALS  25 

grown  to  provide  milk  only,  some  to  provide  meat  only, 
and  some  to  provide  milk  and  meat.  Some  breeds  of 
sheep  are  kept  primarily  for  mutton  production,  others 
primarily  for  wool  production,  and  yet  others  for  both 
uses.  Likewise  some  breeds  of  swine  are  maintained 
mainly  for  the  purpose  of  producing  carcasses  with  rela- 
tively heavy  hams  and  shoulders,  and  a  large  amount  of 
fat,  while  others  are  maintained  primarily  to  produce  a 
large  percentage  of  high  priced  side  meat,  with  lighter 
hams  and  shoulders,  and  a  large  proportion  of  lean  dis- 
tributed through  the  carcass.  The  former  are  now  gen- 
erally spoken  of  as  lard  hogs  and  the  latter  as  bacon. 
Others  again  have  carcasses  a  sort  of  mean  between  the 
two.  The  intermediate  form  in  swine  may  not  be  quite  so 
pronounced  as  in  other  classes  of  farm  animals,  but  it  ex- 
ists, nevertheless.  It  should  also  be  observed  that  the 
intermediate  or  dual  types  are,  in  the  meantime,  more 
numerously  kept  than  the  other  types. 

It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  should  animals  primarily 
adapted  to  one  specific  use  be  chosen  and  -maintained 
for  the  other  line  or  lines  of  production  for  which  other 
animals  of  the  same  class  have  high  adaptation,  the  end 
sought  would  not  be  well  attained,  and  so  far  as  attained 
it  would  be  at  an  undue  sacrifice  of  food  and  labor.  The 
same  will  prove  true  when  animals  adapted  to  two  lines 
of  production  are  chosen  in  lieu  of  animals  of  the  same 
class  primarily  adapted  to  one  line  of  production,  where 
that  one  line  only  is  wanted.  For  instance,  to  seek  the 
highest  quality  of  profitable  meat  from  a  high  type  dairy 
cow,  or  the  most  abundant  milk  produ  tion  from  a  high 
type  beef  cow,  would  be  a  forlorn  hope.  Likewise  to  ex- 
pect either  of  these  to  furnish  meat  and  milk  in  well  bal- 
anced equilibrium,  as  it  is  furnished  by  the  dual  types  of 
cows,  or  to  expect  the  latter  to  equal  the  single  purpose 
cows  in  their  own  specific  line  of  production  would  be  an 
unwarranted  expectation.  It  is  exceedingly  important, 


26  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

therefore,  that  animals  shall   be  carefully  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  specific  uses  for  which  they  are  kept. 

By  what  standards  shall  the  selections  be  made?  First, 
by  those  that  relate  to  inheritance;  second,  to  form  or 
type;  third,  to  quality;  fourth,  to  environment;  fifth,  to 
health,  and  in  some  instances,  but  not  in  all,  to  transmis- 
sion. These  standards  are  discussed  below,  each  in  its 
place,  hence,  further  discussion  at  this  time  is  not  neces- 
sary. 

Inheritance. — Inheritance  in  the  selection  of  animals 
for  feeding,  and  more  especially  for  breeding,  is  important, 
because  of  the  bearing  it  has  on  prospective  results. 
With  rare  exceptions  these  results  are  assured  in  propor- 
tion (i)  to  the  duration  of  the  purity  of  the  breeding;  (2) 
to  the  degree  of  excellence  in  the  near  ancestry;  and  (3) 
to  the  correct  individuality  of  the  animals  in  respect  to 
form  and  also  in  respect  to  function,  proved  or  prospec- 
tive. The  first  is  ascertained  through  pedigree,  the  sec- 
ond, through  facts  bearing  on  the  history,  including  the 
performance  of  the  animals  in  the  near  generations,  and 
the  eye  or  hand  or  both  acting  in  conjunction. 

The  importance  of  inheritance  as  a  factor  in  selection 
is  not  always  equal.  It  is  probably  never  equal  except 
when  the  particular  individuals  are  chosen  for  the  same 
specific  purpose,  as  when  two  cows,  for  instance,  are 
chosen  for  the  same  line  of  production  in  the  dairy.  It 
varies  (i)  with  the  object  for  which  the  animals  are 
chosen ;  (2)  with  the  duration  of  the  period  for  which 
they  are  to  be  kept,  and  (3)  with  the  relative  value  of  the 
products  which  they  produce. 

It  is  very  evident  that  selection  based  on  inheritance, 
though  usually  important  in  selecting  animals  for  feed- 
ing, is  less  important  than  when  selecting  them  for  breed- 
ing. In  the  former  instance,  individual  performance  until 
they  reach  the  block  is  the  only  question  at  stake,  in  the 
latter,  succeeding  generations  are  involved. 


THE   SELECTION   OF  ANIMALS  27 

Lambs  or  swine  purchased  for  feeding  are  seldom  re- 
tained on  the  farm  for  a  longer  period  than  four  months, 
and  steers  for  a  similar  use  are  seldom  retained  for  a 
longer  period  than  six  months,  but  when  young  ewes, 
young  sows  or  young  cows  are  purchased  for  breeding, 
the  greatly  increased  relative  importance  of  care  in  se- 
lecting for  the  latter  use  is  at  once  apparent,  because  of 
the  years  of  prospective  usefulness  ahead  of  them.  Young 
horses  retain  utility  for  a  longer  period  and,  therefore, 
still  more  care  should  be  exercised  in  choosing  these. 

The  difference  in  the  relative  value  of  the  product  re- 
sulting from  different  classes  of  animals  is  readily  appar- 
ent if  the  production  of  the  steer  is  compared  with  the 
labor  of  the  horse  on  the  farm  or  on  the  road,  the  latter 
being  vastly  greater  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  in- 
trinsic value  and  of  duration ;  and  the  difference  in  the 
value  of  animals  of  the  same  class  is  readily  shown  by 
comparing  the  meat  value  of  the  young  cow,  slaughtered 
at  three  years  old,  with  that  of  her  full  sister,  retained  in 
the  dairy  for  years  and  capable  of  producing  on  an  aver- 
age 6,000  pounds  of  good  milk  in  a  year.  Care  in  selecting 
the  latter  is  vastly  more  important  than  care  in  selecting 
the  former,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  greater  care  and 
skill  necessary  in  choosing  a  horse  for  speeding  than 
when  choosing  one  for  ordinary  driving. 

Type  or  form. — The  terms  type  and  form  are  not  quite 
synonymous,  but  the  distinctions  between  them  are  not 
very  wide.  The  latter  relates  more  to  individuality  in 
the  animals  and  the  former  to  breeds,  sub-breeds  or  fam- 
ilies within  sub-breeds.  The  first  has  leference  to  that 
form  which  is  ideal  for  all  the  individuals  of  the  breed, 
sub-breed  or  family.  In  this  respect  it  is  inexorable. 
The  standard  type  is  the  correct  type,  whatever  the  per- 
formance of  the  individual  may  be.  But  the  standard 
form  is,  or  ought  to  be,  that  form  which  will  bring  the 
highest  results  in  performance. 


28  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

In  this  respect,  type  and  form  are  not  always  in  abso- 
lute agreement,  though  they  ought  to  be.  The  standard 
type  is  that  set  up  by  the  association  guarding  the  in- 
terests of  the  breed,  while  the  standard  form  is,  or  ought 
to  be,  that  form  in  which  individuality  usually  results 
in  highest  performance.  There  is  the  further  distinction 
that  type  is  fixed  by  the  breeders'  associations,  while  form 
is  fixed  by  concurrent  opinion  based  on  practical  results. 
For  instance,  type  in  all  the  breeds  of  cattle  differs  to  the 
extent  of  the  difference  in  breed  peculiarities,  while  in 
form  there  is  general  agreement  as  to  the  exact  individual 
shapes  that  are  most  likely  to  result  in  highest  perform- 
ance. The  term  type,  therefore,  is  more  correctly  ap- 
plied to  breeds  as  such,  while  the  term  form  is  more  prop- 
erly applied  to  correct  furnishings  regardless  of  type 
peculiarities.  To  illustrate,  type  in  Shorthorns  points 
the  horn  up  or  down,  form  considers  only  its  shape,  re- 
gardless of  the  pointings.  Type  includes  color  markings ; 
form  does  not.  The  first  more  properly  belongs  to  breeds ; 
the  second,  to  individuals. 

Both  type  and  form  have  a  very  direct  bearing  on  per- 
formance. In  this  respect  they  have  the  strength  of  law 
indisputable  and  decisive.  For  instance,  the  correct 
form  of  a  draught  horse  is  very  different  from  the  correct 
form  for  the  standard  bred  horse,  and  the  correct  form 
for  an  ideal  beef  producing  animal  is  very  different  from 
the  correct  form  for  an  ideal  milk  producer.  The  per- 
formance of  the  draught  horse  on  the  track  and  of  the 
beef  type  of  cow  in  the  dairy  can  never  compare  with  the 
performance  of  the  standard  bred  horse  in  the  one  in- 
stance, or  of  the  dairy  bred  cow  in  the  other.  In  this  re- 
spect a  great  gulf  between  them  is  fixed. 

But  it  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  two  animals  may  have 
exactly  the  same  form  and  they  may  be  of  exactly  similar 
inheritance,  and  yet  the  performance  from  them  may 
vary  considerably,  hence,  type  or  form  is  only  a  general 
guide  when  selecting  animals  for  feeding  or  rearing.  This 


THE   SELECTION   OF  ANIMALS  2) 

is  owing  to  such  influences  as  those  exercised  by  the 
condition  of  the  male  at  the  time  of  generation,  or  of  the 
female  during  gestation,  to  the  character  of  the  food  fed 
before  and  after  the  birth  period,  and  to  habit  as  the  out- 
come of  use  or  training.  But  it  is  the  best  guide 
considered  alone,  when  selecting  animals  for  feed- 
ing or  performance,  especially  in  the  absence  of  a 
knowledge  of  facts  bearing  on  inheritance. 

The  relative  importance  of  inheritance  and  type  or  form 
in  selecting  animals  is  a  disputed  question.  In  this  re- 
spect the  object  sought  will  have  an  influence.  In  select- 
ing animals  for  breeding  and  prolonged  performance,  it 
would  seem  as  though  correct  inheritance  overshadowed 
in  importance  correct  form,  as  the  results  in  breeding 
from  correct  form,  in  the  absence  of  correct  inheritence, 
would  probably  be  very  disappointing;  whereas,  correct 
form  may  usually  be  expected  to  produce  fair  results 
during  the  short  period  covered  by  the  finishing  process 
for  the  block,  in  the  absence  of  any  knowledge  of  inheri- 
tance other  than  that  which  form  furnishes.  Where  the 
two  are  combined,  the  guaranty  of  correct  selection  is  so 
far  strengthened  as  to  be  a  reasonably  safe  guide. 

Quality. — Quality  in  domestic  animals  as  now  gener- 
ally understood  means  capacity  for  well  doing  or  capacity 
for  good  performance  in  the  line  or  lines  for  which  the 
animals  may  be  kept.  The  indications  of  quality,  there- 
fore, are  the  indications  of  such  capacity,  hence,  it  is  very 
evident  that  the  indications  of  quality  will  not  be  the 
same  in  some  respects  with  these  classes  of  animals,  since 
they  are  kept  for  different  uses,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  basis  of  interpretation  is  different.  So  important  is 
the  possession  of  quality  in  domestic  animals,  that  in  its 
absence  marked  results  are  unattainable  either  in  the  line 
of  breeding  or  feeding. 

Quality  is  not  easily  defined.  In  the  broad  sense  it 
would  mean  the  possession  of  all  the  essentials  requisite 
to  indicate  at  least  average  performance  and  these  are 


3O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

many.  It  would  thus  include  evidences  of  correct  form 
for  the  end  eought,  of  function  as  indicated  in  the  form 
and  of  vigorous  digestion  and  assimilation  as  indicated 
in  the  skin  and  the  hair  which  covers  it.  In  so-  far  as  it 
relates  to  form,  it  is  judged  chiefly  by  the  eye,  to  function 
it  is  determined  by  both  the  eye  and  hand,  and  to  diges- 
tion and  nutrition  chiefly  by  the  hand  as  indicated  by  the 
sense  of  touch. 

It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  the  dominant 
thought  in  the  mind  when  the  term  quality  is  used  has 
reference  to  the  indications  of  good  digestion  and  assim- 
ilation because  of  the  high  relative  importance  of  these. 
The  same  animals  may  be  possessed  of  the  indications 
shown  by  correct  form  and  function  in  a  marked  degree, 
but  these  will  not  avail  when  the  digestion  in  the  animal 
possessing  them  is  weak  or  deranged. 

The  indications  of  good  digestion  and  assimilation  are 
more  difficult  to  grasp  than  the  indications  of  correct 
form  and  function,  since  a  knowledge  of  them  is  obtained 
so  largely  through  the  sense  of  touch,  and  the  difficulty 
is  further  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  present  condition 
of  flesh  effects  the  handling  more  or  less.  An  animal  in 
good  flesh  handles  more  satisfactorily  than  one  in  low 
flesh,  since  the  skin  and  hair  are  better  nourished  through 
the  added  vigor  given  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood  from 
which  came  the  good  flesh.  The  skin  will,  in  consequence, 
be  more  pliant  and  the  hair  more  abundant  and  soft. 
Nevertheless,  the  difference  between  the  handling  of  lean 
animals  in  the  same  condition  is  quite  marked,  sufficiently 
so  to  furnish  a  correct  basis  for  judgment. 

The  handling  of  animals  with  a  view  to  throw  light  on 
their  digestive  qualities  is  done  chiefly :  (i)  Through  gen- 
tle pressure  of  the  finger  tips  on  various  parts  of  the 
body ;  (2)  light  pressure  and  lateral  movement  of  the  in- 
side of  the  four  fingers  over  the  ribs ;  (3)  gently  grasping 
the  hide  also  over  the  ribs  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
fingers or  within  the  hand,  and  (4)  passing  more  or  less  of 


THE   SELECTION   OF   ANIMALS  31 

locks  of  hair  between  the  thumb  and  two  forefingers. 
The  greater  the  degree  of  electricity  in  the  first  instance, 
of  ready  vibration  in  the  second,  of  softness  and  easy 
lifting  up  in  the  third,  and  of  soft  and  velvety  feeling  in 
the  fourth,  the  stronger  relatively  are  the  indications  of 
good  digestion  and  assimilation.  These  modes  of  judg- 
ing of  digestive  qualities,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  do 
not  apply  equally  to  the  different  classes  of  animals  be- 
cause of  the  different  physical  conformation  and  furnis^  - 
ings.  They  apply  most  perfectly  to  cattle. 

In  beef  cattle  the  chief  indications  of  quality  are:  (i) 
Certain  requisites  of  form  essential  to  a  high  order  of  beef 
production  (see  p.  138)  ;  (2)  good  handling  qualities,  and 
(3)  a  quiet  disposition. 

In  dairy  cattle  the  chief  indications  of  quality  include : 
(i)  Certain  requisites  of  form  essential  to  milk  production 
of  a  high  order  (see  p.  142)  ;  (2)  good  handling  qualities 
though  not  so  necessarily  marked  as  in  beef  animals;  (3) 
indications  of  sufficient  nerve  power  (see  p.  146),  and  (4) 
good  development  of  the  lacteal  system  (see  p.  145). 

In  sheep  the  more  important  indications  of  quality  are : 
(i)  Certain  requisites  of  form  essential  to  making  good 
mutton  freely  (see  p.  151),  and  (2)  good  handling  qualities, 
including  a  pinkish  color  of  the  skin  and  lustrous  wool, 
plentiful  in  supply  for  the  breed  and  possessed  of  an 
abundance  of  yolk  (see  p.  152).  The  handling  is  ascer- 
tained chiefly  through  the  covering  of  the  essential  parts, 
the  elasticity  of  the  flesh  and  readiness  of  vibration  in  t\\2 
skin  under  general  lateral  pressure  over  the  ribs. 

In  swine  the  more  important  indications  of  quality 
include:  (i)  Certain  requisites  of  form  essential  to  the 
production  of  a  large  quantity  of  meat  of  the  kind  desired 
on  the  more  valuable  parts  (see  p.  153)  ;  (2)  good  hand- 
ling qualities,  and  (3)  a  quiet  disposition.  Handling  in 
swine  as  an  indication  of  quality  relates  chiefly  to  the 
hair,  but  does  not  overlook  the  skin  so  apparent  to  the 
eye  (see  p.  154). 


32  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

In  horses  the  chief  indications  of  quality  include: 
(i)  Those  essentials  of  form  which  are  requisite  to  enable 
each  type  or  class  to  render  in  a  marked  degree  such  per- 
formance as  it  is  mainly  designed  to  furnish  (see  pp.  156 
and  159)  ;  (2)  that  degree  of  cleanliness,  soundness  and  cor- 
rectness of  shape  in  bone  and  limb,  which  indicates  present 
and  prospective  prolonged  usefulness  (see  pp.  157  and  160)  ; 
(3)  such  action  as  indicates  high  merit  in  that  line  for  the 
type  of  class  (see  p.  161),  and  (4)  evidences  of  that  degree 
of  spirit  and  staying  power  peculiar  to  each  class,  which  is 
the  promise  and  also  the  accompaniment  of  high  per- 
formance. 

Any  who  may  desire  to  follow  the  subject  further  are 
referred  to  my  book,  "Animal  Breeding,"  pages  215  to 
227,  where  it  is  discussed  at  some  length. 

Adaptation  to  environment. — Environment  exercises 
a  more  potent  influence  on  animals  that  are  retained  for 
breeding  than  on  those  that  are  selected  for  a  temporary 
period  of  feeding.  But  it  would  not  be  correct  to  say 
that  environment  exercises  no  influence  in  the  latter  re- 
spect, for  it  does,  as  may  be  shown  by  the  adverse  influ- 
ence of  disturbing  sights  and  sounds  on  timid  lambs,  pre- 
viously unused  to  these,  during  the  feeding  period ;  by  the 
disturbing  and  retarding  influence  on  development  of  flies 
and  excessive  heat  on  swine  that  are  being  fattened;  and 
by  the  slower  fleshing  of  steers  in  a  feed  lot  paved  with 
mud  and  mire  while  being  made  ready  for  the  block.  But 
these  influences  are  largely  under  the  control  of  the  owner, 
and  because  of  the  short  duration  of  the  feeding  period 
may  be  so  far  met  as  to  ward  off  in  part,  or  wholly,  the  in- 
fluence which  they  would  otherwise  exert  in  retarding  the 
development  sought,  other  influences,  however,  cannot  be 
met  without  an  expense  that  may  greatly  cut  in  upon  and 
even  absorb  all  profits,  and  in  some  respects  they  cannot 
be  met  at  all.  Of  the  first  class  are  the  foods  which  under 
the  natural  and  artificial  conditions  may  be  furnished.  Of 


THE   SELECTION   OF   ANIMALS  33 

the  second  class  are  the  unalterable  conditions  that  apper- 
tain to  the  contour  of  certain  soils,  to  the  unremovable  ob- 
structions to  tillage  found  in  them,  and  to  the  degree  of 
their  exposure,  climatic  influences  also  included. 

The  power  of  environment  to  produce  modification, 
sometimes  almost  imperceptible  and  again  more  quickly,  is 
so  great  as  to  be  in  a  sense  irresistible.  It  is  one  of  those 
mighty  forces  that  work  in  silence.  The  rapidity  of  the 
modification  produced  is  proportionate  to  the  intensity  of 
the  changed  conditions  to  which  the  animals  are  subjected. 
Nature  unassisted  at  length  brings  to  that  level  which  the 
natural  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  can  maintain,  the 
animals  subjected  to  such  environment,  and  man  can  mod- 
ify the  results  by  the  extent  to  which  he  resorts  to  artificial 
conditions  when  caring  for  them. 

Natural  environment  may  exercise  an  influence  in 
the  direction  of  increase  or  decrease  according  to  its 
nature.  Illustrations  of  the  former  are  found:  (i)  in  the 
greater  size  of  Southdown  sheep  on  rich  prairie  lands,  than 
of  the  same  on  their  native  downs  in  England;  (2)  in  the 
wonderful  hardihood  of  Sable  island  ponies  and  of  certain 
sheep  bred  on  islands  off  the  coast  of  Maine  and  (3)  in  the 
great  powers  of  endurance  of  the  average  horse  bred  for 
generations  on  the  range.  Illustrations  of  the  latter  are 
found :  ( i )  In  the  decreased  size  of  the  Lincoln  sheep 
brought  to  hill  pastures;  (2)  in  the  decrease  of  bone,  size, 
stamina  and  breeding  qualities  of  swine  kept  for  genera- 
tions in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States  and  (3)  in  the 
lessened  hardihood  of  West  Highland  cattle  long  sub- 
jected to  artificial  conditions. 

Selecting  animals  for  breeding  without  due  reference  to 
environment  is  a  mistake  that  is  all  too  common,  and  it  is  a 
mistake  in  all  instances  costly  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  conditions  of  environment  have  been  violated  in 
the  choice.  The  breeder  who  attempts  to  rear  Shorthorns 
on  pastures  only  fit  to  sustain  the  small  Devons  under- 
takes the  task  of  the  engine  which  draws  a  heavy  train 


34  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

up  grade.  No  question  is  more  frequently  put  with  refer- 
ence to  selection  than  that  which  asks,  "Which  is  the  best 
breed?"  The  best  breed  is  that  which  will  give  the  best  re- 
turns for  the  food  fed,  having  due  regard  for  the  objects 
for  which  it  is  kept,  under  the  conditions  of  environment 
to  which  it  is  subjected. 

Health  indications. — -No  consideration  in  selection  is 
more  important  than  the  indications  that  relate  to  good 
health  whether  present  or  prospective.  Under  conditions 
unartificial,  animals  usually  die  only  from  old  age  when 
they  do  not  fall  a  prey  to  those  that  are  stronger.  If  dec- 
imated by  some  disease,  epidemic  in  its  nature,  such  dis- 
ease has  been  introduced  from  some  outside  source,  and 
when  it  runs  its  course  does  not  originate  again  within 
the  breed. 

The  moment,  however,  that  artificial  conditions  are  in- 
troduced, the  danger  arises  that  stamina  will  be  lowered, 
notwithstanding  other  advantages  that  may  be  gained,  and 
that  it  will  be  lowered  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  animals  are  subjected  to  artificial  conditions,  as 
strikingly  illustrated  in  the  vigor  of  the  wild  hog  as  com- 
pared with  the  pampered  hog  of  the  corn  belt.  Happily, 
however,  artificial  conditions  so  conducive  to  generous  pro- 
duction when  of  the  right  kind,  are  in  no  way  necessarily 
inconsistent  with  the  maintenance  of  good  health  in  ani^ 
mals.  It  is  when  the  conditions  are  unwise  or  are  carried 
beyond  a  prudential  limit  that  they  unduly  lower  stamina, 
as  for  instance,  when  cattle  and  sheep  are  too  closely 
housed  in  winter,  or  where  swine  are  fed  too  continuously 
on  corn. 

Conditions  of  good  health. — The  following  are  promi- 
nent indications  of  good  health  in  animals:  (i)  A  full, 
bright  eye.  The  moment  that  the  general  health  becomes 
impaired  the  eye  begins  to  lose  its  brightness,  and  as 
disease  progresses,  it  sinks  and  becomes  languid,  the 
immediate  cause  being  lack  of  sustenance.  (2)  A  moist, 
dewy  muzzle.  With  derangement  in  the  circulation  and 


THE   SELECTION   OF   ANIMALS  35 

a  rising  temperature,  moistness  in  the  muzzle,  which  is 
always  abundant  in  a  healthy  animal,  grows  less,  the 
immediate  cause  being  inactivity  of  the  excretory  or- 
gans. (3)  A  fairly  active  play  of  the  ears.  Such  action 
is  the  evidence  of  generated  power  seeking  opportunity 
to  expend  itself.  (4)  An  abundant,  smooth  and  glossy 
coat.  The  same  instances  that  produce  elasticity  in  the 
hide  produce  glossiness  in  the  coat.  But  the  degree  of 
such  smoothness  and  glossiness  is  much  influenced  by 
the  weather.  Subjected  to  exposure,  the  animal  may 
be  in  good  health  and  yet  have  a  much  rougher  coat  than 
o*?e  not  so  exposed.  (5)  An  active  carriage.  An  active 
carriage  bears  testimony  to  healthful  action  in  all  the 
organs  of  the  system,  and  especially  to  those  concerned 
in  digestion.  No  sooner  do  these  organs  lose  vigor  than 
there  is  a  corresponding  loss  of  freeness  of  movement  and 
activity  in  the  carriage.  These  indications  have  been  taken 
substantially  from  the  book.  "Animal  Breeding,"  by  the  au- 
thor. Closely  allied  to  them  are  the  indications  of  con- 
stitutional vigor  discussed  in  the  same  work  (p.  290). 

But  the  germs  of  some  diseases  may  exist  in  animals 
and  no  indications  of  the  same  be  manifest  to  the  eye. 
Such  are  tuberculosis  in  cattle,  tape  and  also  stomach 
worms  in  sheep.  In  the  summer  of  1905  the  author 
saw  a  herd  of  32  head  of  Scotch  Shorthorn  cows  at 
Rockland,  Out.,  Canada,  every  one  of  which  had  re- 
sponded to  the  tuberculin  test.  They  fed  in  a  pasture 
on  the  farm  of  Hon.  W.  C.  Edwards  who  was  experi- 
menting in  a  large  way  as  to  the  outcome  of  rearing 
calves  from  tuberculous  dams,  but  on  milk  obtained  from 
healthy  animals.  For  some  time  previously  Mr.  Ed- 
wards had  been  purchasing  representatives  of  certain  Scotch 
families  to  be  retained  for  future  breeding.  In  every  in- 
stance, when  brought  to  the  farm  they  had  been  sub- 
jected to  the  tuberculin  test  and  those  which  responded 
were  given  a  place  in  the  tuberculous  herd.  In  the  high 


36  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

character  of  the  breeding,  in  magnificent  individual  develop- 
ment and  in  satisfactory  condition  as  to  flesh  and 
apparent  thrift  at  the  time,  it  is  more  than  questionable 
if  this  herd,  for  the  number  of  animals  in  it,  could  have 
been  equaled  in  America,  and  yet,  every  now  and  then, 
some  individual  of  the  herd  would  pine  away  and  at 
length  succumb  to  the  disease,  nor  can  it  be  certainly 
told  from  the  appearance,  whether  tapeworm  or  stom- 
ach worm  is  present  or  not  in  mature  sheep.  If  indi- 
cations exist,  therefore,  which  happily  they  do,  that  are 
any  guaranty  of  prospective  good  health  in  animals,  their 
importance  will  be  at  once  apparent. 

The  indications  of  prospective  good  health,  or  rather, 
indications  that  are  a  guaranty  of  these,  are  to  be  sought 
in  the  records  of  the  ancestry  in  the  near  generations 
and  in  the  health  of  the  herd  during  recent  years.  For 
instance,  if  a  cow  that  has  suckled  her  own  calves  has 
produced  one  or  more  that  has  been  found  tubercular 
when  purchased  for  breeding,  it  would  be  very  unwise 
to  invest  in  any  of  the  progeny  reared  by  the  same.  If 
stomach  worm  or  tapeworm  has  been  known  to  dec- 
imate a  flock  of  sheep  during  recent  years,  it  would  be 
exceedingly  unwise  to  purchase  breeding  animals  from 
the  same  unless  sufficient  evidence  has  been  furnished 
that  the  germs  have  been  removed  from  the  flock.  Since 
the  seeds  of  the  disease  may  thus  be  introduced  with  an- 
imals apparently  in  perfect  health,  and  which  may  never 
succumb  to  such  parasitic  diseases  or  show  any  indica- 
tions of  injury  from  them,  and  yet  those  same  seed  germs 
may  prove  the  source  of  great  harm  to  the  flock  in  the 
future,  even  to  the  extent  of  destroying  it.  When  swine 
are  purchased  for  breeding  from  herds  that  are  accus- 
tomed to  run  behind  cattle  in  the  feed  or  pasture  lot, 
that  are  being  fed  on  whole  grain,  the  danger  is  present 
that  tuberculosis  may  thus  be  introduced  into  the  breed- 
ing herd,  unless  it  is  positively  known  that  no  individuals 
of  the  breed  are  affected  with  tuberculosis. 


THE   SELECTION   OF  ANIMALS  37 

To  purchase  such  animals  for  feeding  may  not  incur 
great  hazard  with  the  animals  themselves,  because  of 
the  short  duration  of  the  feeding  term.  But  it  does  al- 
ways incur  hazard  to  breeding  animals  on  the  same 
farm  unless  these  are  at  all  times  kept  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  feeding  animals  or  their  surroundings. 
To  purchase  swine  for  feeding  in  proximity  to  cholera 
infected  areas,  is  always  hazardous,  as  an  outbreak  of  the 
same  may  not  only  decimate  the  swine  in  the  feed  lot, 
but  in  the  breeding  pens  also.  The  aim  should  be  to 
rear  the  animals  for  the  feed  lot  to  the  greatest  extent 
practicable  on  the  farms  on  which  they  are  finished.  The 
barter  carried  on  in  live  stock  in  rural  communities  is  re- 
sponsible more  than  anything  else  for  the  distribution  of  live 
stock  diseases. 

Transmission. — It  is  not  necessary  of  course  to  con- 
sider transmitting  properties  when  selecting  animals  for 
feeding  only.  In  such  instances,  inheritance  may  be 
greatly  important,  but,  since  the  animals  are  not  to  be 
used  in  breeding,  transmitting  properties  are  of  no  ac- 
count. But  when  the  selection  pertains  to  animals  to  be 
retained  for  breeding,  then  it  becomes  all  important. 

Correct  transmission  is  another  name  for  prepotency, 
and  prepotency  means  the  power  to  transmit  individual 
and  breed  properties  to  the  progeny.  The  guarantees  of 
desirable  prepotency  are :  ( I )  Purity  of  breeding,  for  sev- 
eral generations  on  the  side  of  both  sire  and  dam:  (2) 
high  performance  in  the  individuals  of  the  near  ancestry 
on  the  side  of  both  sire  and  dam;  (3)  line  breeding,  but 
not  carried  to  the  point  of  weakened  stamina ;  and  (4) 
indications  of  marked  individual  stamina  or  bodily  vigor. 
An  animal  possessed  of  all  these  requisites  will  assuredly 
be  prepotent.  But  when  selecting  animals  for  breeding, 
it  is  not  only  necessary  that  they  shall  be  prepotent,  but 
it  is  all  important^that  they  shall  be  possessed  of  prepo- 
tency adapted  to  the  end  sought.  Prepotency  in  trans- 
mitting flesh  making  properties  to  the  dairy  cow  rather 


38  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

than  milk  producing  properties  would  make  high  class 
dairy  performance  impossible,  and  prepotency  in  trans- 
mitting a  weak  type  of  stamina  would  soon  result  in  ret- 
rogression, alarming  in  character.  It  is  all  important, 
therefore,  that  animals  shall  be  chosen  for  breeding  with 
the  most  careful  reference  to  desirable. prepotency. 

Desirable  prepotency,  in  other  words  desirable  trans- 
mission, may  be  defined  as  prepotency  in  consonance 
with  the  principal  objects  sought  by  the  breeder.  In 
breeding  horses  it  will  mean  transmission  relating  pri- 
marily to  labor  or  speed  requisites  as  the  case  may  be;  in 
breeding  beef  cattle  to  desirable  form  and  milk  elabora- 
tion ;  in  dual  cattle  to  desirable  equilibrium  in  form,  milk 
production  and  meat  production ;  in  sheep,  to  desirable 
form  for  profitable  mutton  production  and  wool  pro- 
duction of  the  kind  wanted;  in  swine,  to  desirable 
form  for  making  heavy  hams  and  shoulders  or  a  large 
amount  of  bacon.  Such  prepotency  relates  to  the  pos- 
session of  many  additional  requisites  in  each  instance,  but 
these  are  stated  with  more  or  less  of  precision  in  the 
chapter  on  type  or  form  (see  p.  133). 

Bearing  on  digestion. — It  will  be  evident  from  what  has 
been  said,  that  transmission  has  an  important  bearing  on 
the  character  of  the  digestion,  and  vigorous  digestion  has 
an  important  bearing  on  the  generation  of  the  requisite 
force  or  speed  wanted  in  horses,  meat  or  milk  elabora- 
tion or  both  in  cattle;  mutton  or  wool  production  in 
sheep,  and  fat  or  leaner  meat  in  pork.  It  would  naturally 
follow,  therefore,  that  in  prepotent  animals,  all  digestion 
will  have,  so  to  speak,  a  natural  bias  in  the  direction  of 
production  for  which  animals  of  the  breed  or  grade 
are  primarily  kept,  that  is  to  say,  it  will  be  bias  in  the 
direction  of  producing  force,  speed,  flesh,  milk,  mutton, 
wool,  fat  or  lean.  It  is  also  self  evident  that  this  bias 
will  not  be  markedly  interchangeable*  that  is  to  say,  if 
acting  strongly  in  one  direction,  as  in  meat  making,  its 
action  will  be  propor  mately  lessened  in  the  opposite 


THE   SELECTION   OF  ANIMALS  39 

direction  as  in  milk  making.  It  follows  then  that 
highest  attainment  in  milk  and  also  in  beef  production 
cannot  be  secured  in  one  and  the  same  bovine.  The  same  is 
true  of  speed  and  force  in  the  horse,  mutton  and  wool 
making  in  the  sheep,  and  fat  and  lean  production  in 
swine.  But  this  fact  is  in  no  sense  antagonistic  with 
medium  attainment  in  both  directions  when  the  animals 
have  been  so  bred. 

In  the  face  of  these  irrevocable  laws,  it  has  been 
claimed  that  a  cattle  beast  of  dairy  or  scrub  blood  will 
make  gains  as  cheaply  and  as  quickly  as  a  steer  of  beef 
blood,  some  tests  conducted  at  experiment  stations  seem 
to  favor  this  view.  Other  tests,  but  probably  not  so 
many,  favor  the  opposite  view.  With  reference  to  the 
former  it  may  be  said  that  they  relate  to  periods  of  feed- 
ing of  short  duration,  and  it  may  be  they  are  accounted 
for  in  part  by  the  leaner  condition  in  which  dairy  and 
scrub  animals  usually  are  when  the  period  of  fattening 
begins,  and  in  part  because  of  the  influence  of  individual 
vigor  on  digestion. 

This  explains  why,  in  the  face  of  the  fact,  that  the 
compact  form,  other  things  being  equal,  will  produce 
gains  most  cheaply  and  quickly,  a  less  compact  form 
will  in  certain  instances,  excel  in  both  respects.  It  also 
explains  why,  though  constitutional  vigor  is  usually  most 
strikingly  associated  with  good  chest  development,  ani- 
mals with  less  of  chest  development  will  frequently 
possess  more  vigor  than  the  former. 

Nevertheless  the  fact  remains,  that  the  unchangeable 
law  of  transmission  that  like  begets  like,  other  things  be- 
ing equal,  should  and  doubtless  will  enable  the  well  bred 
beef  animal  to  make  gains  more  quickly  and  cheaply 
than  the  well  bred  dairy,  common  or  scrub  animal.  If 
this  is  not  true,  then  by  parity  of  -•  reasoning  it  should 
follow,  other  things  being  equal,  that  this  high  class  beef 
animal  should  under  certain  conditions  produce  milk 
as  abundantly  and  cheaply  as  the  h-  h  class  dairy  animal, 


4O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

which  is  absurd.  It  would  also  follow  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  fix  a  bias  in  the  system  pronouncedly  in 
the  direction  of  one  kind  of  production  as  meat  or  milk, 
as  a  reasonably  certain  factor  in  transmission. 

Bearing  on  quality. — Transmission  also  has  an  impor- 
tant bearing  on  quality  in  performance  and  production, 
and  also  on  habit.  The  influence  which  it  exercises  on 
performance  is  seen  in  the  character  of  the  action 
possessed  by  draft  and  standard  bred  horses  respec- 
tively. The  influence  which  it  exerts  on  quality  is  very 
clearly  shown  in  what  may  be  termed  breed  character- 
istics in  the  quality  of  meat,  milk  and  wool.  The  in- 
fluence which  it  exercises  on  habit  is  well  shown  in  the  dif- 
ference in  the  prolificacy  of  certain  breeds  of  sheep  and 
swine. 

While  easy  and  vigorous  action  is  required  in  kind,  of 
both  draft  and  standard  bred  horses,  the  speed  of  the 
latter  must  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  former,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  ability  to  maintain  speed  prolonged 
in  duration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  strength  of  the 
former  must  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  latter. 

In  beef  and  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  the  difference  in  the 
depth  of  the  covering  of  loin  and  sirloin,  and  in  the 
weight  of  the  thigh  is  markedly  in  favor  of  the  former. 
The  latter  also  puts  on  relatively  much  more  internal  fat 
when  being  finished.  In  the  beef  breeds  the  difference 
between  the  covering  of  fat  on  the  loin  and  the  streak- 
ing and  flecking  of  the  meat  in  various  parts  of  the  car- 
cass, that  is  the  intermingling  of  the  fat  and  lean,  is 
marked.  The  same  is  true  of  the  mutton  breeds  of 
sheep  and  also  of  the  texture  of  the  meat  in  these  with 
reference  to  toughness  or  tenderness  and  coarseness  or 
fineness  of  fiber.  In  swine  the  difference  in  quality  is 
markedly  seen  in  the  contrast  in  the  amount  of  streak- 
ing of  the  fat  and  lean  in  the  side  meat. 


THE   SELECTION- OF  ANIMALS  41 

Some  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  produce  milk  with  a  high 
percentage  of  fat  as  a  breed  characteristic  in  the  milk, 
but  only  moderate  in  quantity.  Such  for  instance  are 
the  Jersey  and  Guernsey.  They  produce  a  quality  in 
milk  which  it  has  taken  centuries  of  careful  breeding  to 
reach;  other  breeds  as  the  Holstein,  produce  a  large  flow 
of  milk  with  a  relatively  low  per  cent  of  butter  fat,  but 
the  claim  that  it  is  richer  in  casein  may  possibly  be 
correct.  So  fixed  is  the  character  of  the  transmission  in 
the  instances  cited,  that  years  and  years  of  careful  breed- 
ing and  selection  would  be  required  to  make  any  impor- 
tant modification,  for  the  reason  that  modification  in 
quality  of  production  is  far  more  difficult  to  attain  than 
modification  in  form. 

Contrasts  in  sheep, — The  wide  and  striking  contrasts  in 
the  character  of  the  wool  in  sheep  furnish  notable  in- 
stances of  the  potency  of  transmission  relating  to  quality 
in  production.  In  some  breeds  of  sheep  not  more  than 
500  wool  fibers  are  produced  on  one  inch  square  of  the 
body,  while  on  others  as  many  as  1,500  have  been  pro- 
duced. In  some  breeds  the  normal  length  of  fibre  is  not 
more  than  2  to  3  inches,  in  others  it  is  not  less  than  10  to 
12  inches  in  very  good  specimens.  To  transform  the  one 
kind  of  wool  into  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  other,  more 
especially  when  the  change  is  from  extremely  fine  to  ex- 
tremely coarse  or  the  opposite,  would  take  more  years 
than  are  usually  allotted  to  an  average  life.  Some  breeds 
of  sheep,  as  the  Dorset,  are  very  prolific,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  some  of  the  breeds  of  bacon  swine;  other  breeds 
in  both  classes  produce  less  numerously  and  less  regu- 
larly. The  breeding  habit  also  influences  the  season  for 
breeding,  as  shown  in  the  production  of  autumn  lambs 
by  the  Dorsets  as  a  normal  feature  of  production.  But 
modification  in  breeding  habit  is  much  more  easily  se- 
cured than  modification  in  quality  of  production. 


42  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Food  exercises  more  or  less  of  an  influence  in  relation 
to  transmission  in  the  lines  mentioned,  but  it  usually  acts 
slowly  as  a  factor  in  securing  permanent  modification, 
especially  in  relation  to  quality  in  production.  The  most 
potent  influence  in  securing  such  modification  is  the 
proper  selection  of  the  purely  bred  sires  used  in  breeding. 


CHAPTER  III 

PRINCIPLES  THAT  GOVERN  SELECTING 
FOODS 

In  selecting  foods  for  feeding  farm  animals,  for  what- 
soever purpose  they  may  be  kept,  certain  principles 
should  be  observed  which  have  the  strength  of  law. 
Prominent  among  these  are  the  following:  (i)  The  aim 
should  be  to  choose  foods  so  that  they  may  be  fed  in 
approximate  equilibrium  as  to  their  constituents;  (2)  the 
equilibrium  or  balance  in  foods  varies  much  with  the 
class  of  animals  to  which  they  are  fed,  with  the  age  of  the 
animals  in  the  same  class,  and  with  the  object  sought 
from  feeding  them;  (3)  under  some  conditions  it  may  be 
more  profitable  to  feed  foods  out  of  balance  than  in 
equilibrium  as  to  their  constituents;  (4)  the  chemical 
analysis  of  a  food  is  not  in  itself  a  complete  measure  of 
its  value  for  feeding;  (5)  when  choosing  foods  a  due  re- 
gard must  be  had  to  the  proportion  of  bulk  or  concentra- 
tion in  the  same  with  reference  to  the  end  sought 
from  feeding  them  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results;  (6) 
succulent  foods  are  more  favorable  to  milk  production 
than  those  of  similar  analysis  as  to  nutrients,  but  lacking 
in  succulence;  (7)  variety  in  foods  will  produce  returns 
more  satisfactory  than  will  those  of  similar  analysis,  but 
lacking  in  variety  when  fed  for  long  periods;  (8)  the 
value  of  foods  is  influenced  by  the  nutrients  they  contain, 
by  the  condition  of  the  nutrients  as  to  digestibility,  by 
the  influence  which  they  exert  on  development  and  pro- 
duction, and  by  the  fertility  which  they  furnish. 

Equilibrium  in  foods. — Equilibrium  in  foods  means  the 
possession  of  nutrients  in  such  proportion  as  are  neces- 
sary to  meet  the  needs  of  the  animals  to  which  they  are 

43 


44  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

fed.  The  chief  food  elements  in  foods  are  known  as  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates,  ether  extract  and  ash.  They  also 
contain  more  or  less  water  according  to  the  kind  of  the 
food  and  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  it  is  fed.  Each 
of  these  food  elements  has  a  distinct  mission  to  perform 
in  the  sustenance  of  the  body.  Protein,  for  instance,  is 
.chiefly  concerned  in  producing  flesh  and  the  vital  fluids  of 
the  body,  carbohydrates  in  producing  fat  and  heat  and 
ether  extract  in  producing  fat.  These  foods  are  fed  in 
equilibrium  when  the  components  which  they  furnish 
are  in  exact  proportion  to  the  needs  of  the  animals  to 
which  they  are  fed.  For  instance,  the  protein  in  the 
food  is  in  equilibrium  when  it  is  present  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  meet  the  exact  needs  of  the  animals  to  which 
it  is  fed  with  reference  to  flesh  production.  Carbohy- 
drates are  in  equilibrium  when  they  meet  exactly  the 
needs  of  the  animals  with  reference  to  heat  and  fat  pro- 
duction. Likewise  fat  is  in  equilibrium  when  it  properly 
fulfils  its  mission  and  the  same  is  true  of  ash  when  it 
properly  furnishes  the  elements  for  the  growth  and  sus- 
tenance of  bone.  These  are  also  in  equilibrium  when  they 
bear  a  relation  to  one  another  resulting  in  the  most 
economic  use  of  each. 

It  is  very  apparent,  therefore,  that  when  these  food  ele- 
ments are  fed  out  of  balance  waste  must  result.  For  in- 
stance, should  protein  be  fed  in  excess,  the  amount  fed 
in  excess  of  the  needs  of  the  animal  would  be  wasted. 
The  same  would  be  true  of  the  other  food  elements,  for 
the  system  can  only  appropriate  so  much ;  any  amount 
fed  beyond  this  will  not  be  utilized. 

The  danger  is  also  present  that  there  will  be  one-sided 
developments  where  protein  is  fed  in  excess,  the  muscular 
development  will  be  in  excess  of  the  development  of  fat 
and  bone  in  the  growing  animal.  When  carbohydrates 
are  fed  in  excess  muscular  development  will  be  arrested 
by  an  excess  of  fat  production.  When  ash  is  fed  in  ex- 
cess, bone  development  will  be  out  of  balance.  Results 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  45 

the  opposite  will  follow  if  these  nutrients  are  insufficient 
in  supply.  It  would  be  easily  possible  to  feed  foods  so 
out  of  balance  as  to  entirely  defeat  the  objects  for  which 
animals  are  grown.  An  exclusive  corn  diet  for  instance, 
fed  to  swine  grown  and  maintained  for  breeding  uses, 
would  in  time,  reduce  size,  weaken  bone  and  destroy 
breeding  properties,  so  highly  carbonaceous  is  it. 

Tivo  factors  add  much  to  the  difficulty  found  in  feed- 
ing foods  in  equilibrium  or  balance.  One  of  these  is  the 
variations  in  the  needs  of  the  animals  to  which  the  foods 
are  fed,  and  the  other  is  the  variations  in  foods  at  differ- 
ent periods  of  growth.  Take  for  instance  the  horse 
grown  for  work.  When  a  colt,  much  protein  is  needed 
in  the  food  to  make  muscle  and  much  ash  to  make  bone. 
When  the  animal  is  grown  and  set  to  work,  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  carbohydrates  are  needed  to  sustain 
energy  and  to  prevent  excessive  waste  of  tissue.  These 
variations  must  be  taken  into  account  by  the  successful 
feeder  and  he  must  strive  to  govern  his  work  accord- 
ingly. 

Variations  in  the  foods  are  to  some  extent  caused  by 
variations  in  climate  and  soil.  These  are  not  usually 
greatly  significant  in  degree.  But  those  variations  are 
greatly  significant  that  relate  to  the  constituents  of 
plants  at  different  stages  of  development.  Take  for 
instance  the  corn  plant.  In  the  early  stages  of  its 
growth,  it  is  succulent,  and  not  specially  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates. These  increase  with  increasing  maturity  in 
the  plant.  Subsequently  to  harvesting,  the  food  nutrients 
are  decreased  in  the  fodder  by  exposure  and  it  loses  in 
palatability.  Hence  the  value  of  corn  as  a  food  plant 
varies  continually  at  every  stage  of  its  growth  and 
utilization. 

Some  few  foods  are  balanced  in  themselves.  Grass  is 
one  of  these.  This  at  least  is  true  of  some  kinds  of 
grass.  Because  it  is  so,  additional  food  is  not  usually 
given  to  animals  abundantly  supplied  with  grass. 


46  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Usually,  however,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  feed  foods 
in  combination,  for  the  reason  first,  that  one  is  lacking 
in  certain  food  elements,  and  second,  that  another 
possesses  these,  hence,  feeding  the  second  makes  it  the 
complement  of  the  first. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  readily  apparent 
that  the  whole  question  of  feeding  animals  is  one  that 
calls  for  the  exercise  of  much  intelligence.  It  is  a  com- 
plicated work.  So  complicated  is  it  that  it  may  be  al- 
most impossible  in  practical  feeding  to  feed  foods  in 
exact  balance.  Usually  of  course  it  would  be  desirable 
to  feed  them  thus.  Notwithstanding,  such  feeding  may 
not  give  results  absolutely  satisfactory  as  is  shown  later 
(see  p.  48).  The  qualifying  factors  of  digestibility,  pal- 
atability  and  incidental  influence  on  digestion  must  be 
considered.  For  practical  purposes  it  will  suffice  to  feed 
foods  in  approximate  equilibrium.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
feed  them  thus.  From  such  feeding  there  may  be  some 
waste,  but  it  will  not  be  serious.  Tables  giving  the 
chemical  composition  of  feeding  stuffs  are  easily  access- 
ible. Some  of  these  give  the  constituents  of  digestibility 
as  well,  hence  the  individual  who  uses  the  foods  which 
he  may  feed  according  to  the  information  thus  given, 
will  not  fail  to  feed  them  in  approximate  balance. 

Changes  in  equilibrium. — The  equilibrium  or  balance 
in  foods  varies  much  with  the  class  of  animals  to  which' 
they  are  fed,  with  the  age  of  the  animals  in  the  same 
class  and  with  the  objects  sought  from  feeding  them. 
A  ration  that  is  in  exact  balance  to  meet  the  needs  of  a 
horse  at  work,  of  cows  giving  milk  and  of  swine  that  are 
growing  is  so  radically  different  that  the  difference  will 
be  at  once  apparent  to  any  who  are  at  all  familiar  with 
the  needs  of  these  classes  of  animals.  The  first  calls  for 
food  with  concentration  and  but  moderate  bulk,  the 
second  calls  for  much  bulk  and  not  more  than  moderate 
concentration,  and  the  third  requires  but  little  bulk  and 
much  concentration.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  47 

measure  of  value  in  the  same  food  for  the  different 
classes  of  animals  is  very  different.  Oats  for  instance,  are 
more  valuable  relatively  to  the  horse  at  work  than  to  the 
cow  in  milk,  since  they  are  unexcelled  in  producing 
energy  and  in  sustaining  muscle  so  much  needed  by  the 
horse.  The  cow  is  not  so  much  in  need  of  sustenance  of 
the  kinds  named.  She  wants  foods  that  will  produce 
milk  freely  at  moderate  cost.  Other  foods  will  do  this 
which  usually  cost  less,  but  oats  are  more  valuable  rela- 
tively for  cows  than  for  swine,  since  the  large  amount 
of  hull  renders  them  less  well  adapted  to  the  digestion  of 
swine  than  to  that  of  cows. 

The  necessity  for  changing  the  equilibrium  or  balance 
in  the  foods  fed  with  the  age  of  the  animal  within  the 
class  is  equally  apparent.  It  is  so  whether  considered 
with  reference  to  digestibility,  bulk  or  concentration,  or 
the  character  of  the  nutrients.  The  young  calf  is  sus- 
tained for  a  time  solely  on  food  taken  in  the  liquid  form 
and  easily  digestible.  Later  meal  is  given  nearly  all  of 
which  is  digestible;  as  time  goes  on  the  young  animal 
becomes  gradually  more  capable  of  digesting  food  with- 
out harm  which  contains  relatively  more  crude  fiber. 
With  increasing  age  the  calf  becomes  more  capable  of 
digesting  more  and  more  bulky  foods.  In  fact  these  are 
necessary  to  its  proper  development.  If  they  are  with- 
held unduly,  the  want  of  distention  in  the  stomach  and 
digestive  system  generally  will  be  proportionate,  and 
just  in  proportion  to  that  want  of  distension  will  be  the 
lack  of  capacity  to  take  enough  food  to  result  in  high 
performance. 

The  necessity  for  such  variation  is  usually  recognized. 
The  same  cannot  always  be  said  with  reference  to  modi- 
fication in  the  nutrients  given,  notwithstanding  that  the 
latter  is  in  some  respects  as  essential  as  the  former.  The 
young  animal  will  not  develop  a  frame  equal  to  the 
average  in  its  class  unless  it  is  given  enough  of  ash  in  the 
food  to  accomplish  such  an  end.  When  matured,  ash 


48  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

is  needed  only  to  repair  waste.  So  also  it  must  have 
enough  protein  to  supplement  the  ash  in  building  the 
framework  and  in  covering  it  with  the  requisite  muscle. 
Where  either  or  both  are  lacking  the  development  will  not 
be  of  the  highest  order.  Carbohydrates  are  needed  to 
furnish  the  requisite  heat  and  fat  which  the  animal  re- 
quires. They  are  needed  in  less  proportion  when  it  is 
young  than  when  it  grows  older,  for  the  reason  first,  that 
the  machinery  of  digestion  runs  more  rapidly  near  the 
birth  period  and  consequently  generates  more  heat  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  food  consumed,  and  second, 
that  during  the  period  of  growth  much  muscle  is  wanted 
rather  than  much  fat.  It  is  very  evident,  therefore,  that 
the  ration  suited  to  a  mature  animal  at  rest  should  con- 
tain more  of  carbohydrates  relatively  and  less  of  protein 
than  would  be  suited  to  a  young  animal 

The  objects  for  which  animals  are  fed  are  equally  insis- 
tent in  their  demand  for  variation  in  the  food  given  to  them. 
The  calf  that  is  being  prepared  for  veal  calls  for  food  that 
is  rich  in  fat,  such  as  whole  milk  or  its  equivalents,  that 
grown  for  being  fattened  at  a  later  period  or  for  milk 
production  calls  for  food  with  but  litle  fat  in  it,  such  as 
skim  milk  furnishes.  The  animal  grown  for  baby  beef, 
must  have  more  of  carbohydrates  in  its  food  than  that  grown 
for  being  fattened  later.  Likewise  the  animal  that  is 
giving  milk  must  be  given  more  of  protein  and  less  of 
carbohydrates  than  would  suffice  for  the  same  animal 
while  being  fattened.  Similarly,  illustrations  could  be 
multiplied  of  the  necessity  for  variation  in  the  food 
nutrients  in  feeding  all  classes  of  domestic  animals  kept 
on  the  farm. 

Foods  not  in  equilibrium. — In  some  instances  it  may 
be  advantageous  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  profit  to 
feed  foods  out  of  balance,  that  is  to  feed  an  excess  of  car- 
bohydrates in  some  cases  and  an  excess  of  protein  in 
others.  This  may  happen  when  some  food  factor,  rich 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  49 

in  one  class  of  nutrients,  is  relatively  cheap  and  another 
class,  opposite  in  character,  is  relatively  high. 

It  has  been  found  profitable,  in  some  instances,  to  feed 
corn  out  of  balance  rather  than  to  go  to  the  expense  of 
purchasing  protein  to  feed  it  in  balance.  When  corn  is 
fed  thus  it  will  not  be  possible  to  secure  gains  so  satis- 
factory as  when  it  is  fed  in  balance,  but  it  is  possible  in 
many  instances  to  secure  gain  thus,  more  cheaply  than 
if  it  resulted  from  feeding  balanced  foods  under  these  con- 
ditions. When  corn  was  so  abundant  that  it  was  used  as 
fuel  in  running  steam  engines,  it  was  in  order  to  feed 
such  corn  out  of  balance  to  both  cattle  and  swine  up  to  a 
certain  limit,  rather  than  to  purchase  the  protein  needed 
in  order  to  balance  the  ration. 

It  has  also  been  found  profitable  in  some  instances  to 
feed  protein  in  excess,  as  for  instance  in  the  western 
valleys  where  alfalfa  grows  abundantly  and  carbohy- 
drate foods  as  corn  are  scarce.  The  alfalfa  thus  fed  out 
of  balance  is  in  part  to  some  extent  wasted,  but  allowing 
for  this,  the  product  resulting  is  more  cheaply  made  than 
it  would  be  through  the  purchase  of  corn  to  balance  up 
the  ration. 

There  are  localities  in  which  it  is  not  so  easy  to  grow 
foods  in  balance  as  out  of  balance,  because  of  natural 
adaptation.  For  instance,  in  western  mountain  valleys 
it  would  be  possible  to  grow  alfalfa  so  as  to  obtain  much 
more  food  per  acre  than  could  be  obtained  from  corn. 
Likewise  in  certain  areas  of  the  western  states  it  is 
easily  possible  to  obtain  food  nutrients  from  corn,  greatly 
in  excess  of  those  obtained  from  a  similar  area  in  the 
form  of  clover  or  alfalfa  or  indeed  of  any  other  protein 
food.  In  these  facts  and  under  these  conditions,  the 
feeding  of  foods  out  of  balance  finds  much  justification. 
Nevertheless  it  should  be  the  aim  where  at  all  possible 
to  grow  foods  so  that  they  can  be  fed  in  balance.  It  is 
usually  much  easier  to  obtain  a  sufficiency  of  carbohy- 
drates than  of  protein,  because  of  their  abundance,  but 


5O  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

it  should  be  the  aim,  nevertheless,  to  grow  a  sufficiency 
of  protein.  The  value  of  protein  foods  grown  in  the. 
locality  cannot  usually  be  measured  by  the  food  which 
they  furnish.  They  generally  add  to  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  in  the  process  of  growth.  In  fact  they  always  do  if 
of  the  legume  class.  The  fertility  which  they  bring  to  the 
land  in  some  instances,  goes  far  to  equal  the  value  of  the 
food  nutrients  which  they  furnish.  It  would  probably 
be  correct  to  say  that  the  adaptation  is  such  in  nearly  all 
localities,  that  a  sufficiency  of  both  protein  and  carbohy- 
drate plants  may  be  grown  to  make  it  possible  to  feed 
them  in  balance  without  the  necessity  of  purchasing  from 
an  outside  source  On  the  other  hand  such  purchase 
would  not  only  be  justifiable  but  would  also  be  com- 
mendable, when  relative  values  will  justify  the  same. 

Nor  does  it  always  follow  that  such  unbalanced  feeding 
will  be  the  most  profitable  in  the  end  though  it  may  be 
the  cheaper  in  the  meantime.  Suppose,  when  growing 
an  animal  for  breeding  purposes,  for  labor,  or  for  milk 
giving  of  a  high  order,  that  during  the  growing  period  it 
is  fed  food  in  excess  that  is  highly  carbonaceous,  as  corn, 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal  for  either  purpose  would  be 
materially  lessened.  Its  size  would  be  less  than  normal. 
Its  bone  would  not  be  of  the  best  and  the  habit  in  diges- 
tion of  using  the  food  materials  for  building  and  main- 
taining the  body  would  be  so  fixed  that  the  milk  giving 
capacity  would  be  lessened.  In  such  instances  it  would 
be  better  to  purchase  some  protein  to  help  at  least  to 
balance  the  ration,  unless  the  cost  of  the  same  was  ex- 
cessive. When,  however,  the  question  is  one  of  finishing 
an  animal  which  is  to  be  sent  to  the  block  after  a  few 
months  of  feeding,  there  need  be  no  hesitancy  in  feeding 
foods  out  of  balance  even  for  prolonged  periods,  where 
the  lacking  element  or  elements  are  present  in  such 
quantity  as  to  prevent  any  loss  further  than  is  entailed 
in  the  waste  of  the  food  fed  in  excess,  when  values 


THIS    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  5! 

justify  such  a  course.     It  may  also  be  justifiable  to  feed 
them  out  of  balance. 

Analysis  not  a  complete  guide. — When  selecting 
rations  for  feeding  the  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  chemical  analysis  of  foods  is  not  a  complete  guide  as 
to  their  feeding  value-.  It  is  not  for  the  reason  first,  that 
the  analysis  does  not  give  the  exact  degree  of  the 
digestibility,  second,  that  it  says  nothing  about  the  palat- 
ability,  and  third,  that  it  takes  no  account  of  the  influ- 
ence which  the  product  exercises  on  the  general  diges- 
tion. 

The  analysis  gives  the  various  components  of  any  food 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  nutrients  which  it  con- 
tains, but  it  does  not  always  tell  what  proportion  of  the  vari- 
ous nutrients  is  digestible.  Two  foods  may  give  the  same 
chemical  analysis  and  yet  the  feeding  value  of  the  one 
may  greatly  exceed  that  of  the  other,  for  no  other  reason 
than  that  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  several  nutri- 
ents in  the  one  are  more  digestible  than  in  the  other.  Of 
course  the  digestibility  of  foods  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  averages  has  been  worked  out  by  the  chemist 
and  the  experimenter  laboring  in  conjunction,  but  the 
digestibility  can  only  be  taken  as  an  approximate  guide. 

The  importance  of  palatability  in  foods  as  a  measure 
of  their  value  is  very  great.  Other  things  being  equal,  a 
food  is  valuable  in  proportion  as  it  is  palatable,  that  is, 
in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  the  palatability  which  it 
possesses,  and  in  proportion  to  the  percentage  of  the 
same  consumed  as  the  result  of  such  palatability.  The 
analysis  of  the  chemist  can  throw  no  light  on  either 
aspect  of  this  question.  At  one  time  it  was  supposed 
that  palatability  was  important  only  because  of  the  in- 
fluence which  it  exercised  on  the  consumption  of  food. 
Now  it  is  known  that  it  exercises  more  or  less  influence 
on  digestion.  That  has  been  demonstrated  by  experi- 
ment. It  aids  digestion  by  increasing  the  flow  of  the 
gastric  juices  and  possibly  in  other  ways.  But  the  most 


£2  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

important  influence  which  it  exercises  is  on  the  in- 
creased consumption  which  results  from  increased  pala- 
tability.  The  influences  that  affect  palatability  are  variety 
in  plants,  maturity,  harvesting  and  preparation  for  feeding. 

A  food  may  be  fed  possessed  of  certain  nutrients  and 
while  it  may  answer  well  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  fed, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  it  exercises  any  perceptible  influence 
on  the  other  foods  fed  along  with  it.  Other  foods  again  are 
fed  which  invariably  exercise  such  an  influence.  They  do 
so  by  the  favorable  influence  which  they  exert  on  the  diges- 
tive organs  and  digestive  processes.  They  put  the  system 
in  better  tone.  For  instance,  should  the  faeces  indicate  con- 
stipation, some  food  can  be  fed  in  limited  quantity  which 
corrects  such  a  condition.  Such  a  food  is  found  in  wheat, 
bran  and  oil  cake.  Other  foods  may  produce  undue  laxness. 
The  influence  may  be  counteracted  by  feeding  but  a  limited 
quantity  of  some  other  food.  Such  a  food  is  found  in  dry 
fodder  of  certain  kinds.  The  analyses  of  these  foods  can- 
not indicate  anything  as  to  these  influences.  It  would  not 
be  possible  to  measure  the  additional  influence  thus  exerted 
by  these  foods,  but  under  some  conditions  it  would  seem 
safe  to  say  that  this  influence  is  in  some  instances  of  greater 
value  than  the  direct  influence  exerted  through  their  food 
nutrients.  (See  page  276.) 

Bulk  and  concentration  in  foods. — A  due  relation 
must  be  maintained  between  the  relative  bulk  and  concen- 
tration in  the  foods  fed.  The  laws  of  physical  conformation 
demand  this  and  the  demand  is  imperative.  This  relation 
differs  first,  with  the  different  classes  of  animals;  second, 
with  the  same  class  at  different  ages ;  and  third,  with  the 
objects  for  which  they  are  kept.  It  cannot  be  ignored  by  the 
successful  breeder  and  feeder,  because  of.  the  relation  which 
it  bears  first,  to  relative  production;  second,  to  relative 
cost  in  relation  to  production;  and  third,  to  the  influence 
which  it  exercises  on  continued  production. 

This  relation  differs  greatly  in  different  classes  of  ani- 
mals. They  differ  greatly  in  their  capacity  to  consume  and 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  53 

digest  bulky  foods.  Chauveau  gives  the  total  capacity  of 
the  stomach  of  the  horse  as  19  quarts,  of  the  ox  as  226.9 
quarts,  of  the  sheep  in  its  various  divisions  31.3  quarts,  and 
of  the  hog  as  8.5  quarts.  With  horses  and  swine,  however, 
the  intestinal  capacity  is  much  larger  than  with  cattle  and 
sheep.  Notwithstanding,  the  superior  ability  of  the  latter 
to  consume  relatively  larger  quantities  of  bulky  foods  is 
apparent,  both  from  the  relatively  larger  stomach  capacity 
and  from  the  better  mastication  which  they  can  give  to 
these  while  ruminating.  The  pig,  because  of  the  smallness 
of  the  stomach,  is  the  least  well  adapted  to  consume  bulky 
food.  To  attempt  to  rear  an  animal  thus  constituted  on  bulky 
foods  only  would  be  fatal  to  success. 

The  difference  in  the  needs  of  the  animals  of  the  same 
class  at  different  ages  is  very  marked  with  reference  to  the 
bulk  and  concentration  in  the  foods  fed.  The  stomach  of  a 
calf  is  relatively  small.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  first 
stomach.  To  feed  a  young  calf  bulky  food  would  be  fatal 
to  its  well  being.  The  stomach  has  not  sufficient  distension 
for  such  a  food,  nor  have  the  organs  sufficient  capacity  to 
digest  it.  The  introduction  of  bulky  foods  must  be  gradual 
and  increasingly  progressive.  The  adaptation  to  modified 
digestive  capacity  gradually  secures  the  distension  neces- 
sary.. By  the  time  a  cattle  beast  becomes  grown,  it  may 
easily  be  maintained  on  bulky  foods  only.  This  change  in 
digestive  capacity  is  found  in  all  domestic  animals,  but  not 
in  equal  degree,  because  of  the  differences  in  digestive 
capacity. 

The  objects  for  which  the  animals  are  kept,  influence 
in  a  marked  degree  the  relative  proportions  in  the  bulk  and 
concentration  in  the  foods  fed.  It  would  seem  correct  to 
say  that  necessity  for  bulk  in  foods  is  greatest  during  the 
growing  period,  and  that  the  necessity  for  concentration 
increases  with  production  required  from  the  living  animal 
in  the  form  of  food  and  labor,  and  that  it  is  greatest  when 
the  animal  is  being  finished  for  the  block.  Under  favor- 
able conditions,  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  may  be  grown  to 


54  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

maturity  but  not  to  earliest  maturity  on  bulky  foods  alone ; 
especially  is  this  true  of  the  two  latter.  But  the  best  returns 
in  milk  and  labor  cannot  be  secured  without  more  or  less 
concentration  in  the  foods  fed. 

The  digestive  capacity  is  not  sufficiently  ample  to  give 
the  highest  returns  in  milk  in  the  one  case  and  labor  in 
the  other,  notwithstanding  that  such  foods  may  be  fed  in 
equilibrium  as  to  their  constituents.  When  animals  are 
being  finished  in  finest  form  for  the  block,  the  necessity  for 
concentration  in  the  foods  is  greatest.  As  in  the  case  of 
animals  producing  milk  and  labor,  they  cannot  consume 
enough  of  the  bulky  foods  to  furnish  a  sufficiency  of  nutri- 
ents to  produce  the  milk  required  in  the  one  instance  and 
labor  in  the  other.  On  the  necessity  for  a  sufficiency  of 
concentrated  food  to  effect  the  end  sought  is  based 
the  universal  custom  of  feeding  grain  in  the  instances  named 
in  addition  to  the  fodders. 

That  the  feeder  who  ignores  the  intimate  relation  be- 
tween bulk  and  concentration  in  foods  will  pay  a  propor- 
tionate penalty  is  easily  shown.  The  breeder  who  grows 
a  heifer  on  foods  too  concentrated  rears  an  animal  so  lack- 
ing in  stomach  distension,  that  it  cannot  consume  a  suffi- 
ciency of  bulk  products.  The  one  who  grows  a  beast  on 
foods  too  bulky  for  its  tender  age,  has  an  animal  with  so 
much  of  paunch  that  it  will  have  an  excess  of  waste  in  the 
carcass  for  highest  use  on  the  block.  Swine  reared  subse- 
quent to  the  weaning  period  on  pasture  will  not  make  suf- 
ficient gains.  Those  fed  during  the  growing  period  on 
corn  only,  will  not  make  sufficient  growth.  The  necessity 
for  equilibrium  in  bulk  and  concentration  in  the  foods  fed 
would  seem  to  be  about  as  important  as  the  necessity  for 
equilibrium  in  the  chemical  relation  of  foods,  and  yet  it  has 
been  given  much  less  attention  than  the  former  by  the  au- 
thorities on  animal  nutrition.  The  relative  cost  of  bulky 
foods  and  concentrates  respectively  should  be  duly  consid- 
ered when  feeding  animals.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  55 

greatest  profit  will  be  made  from  feeding  these  in  equilib- 
rium. But  because  of  the  contrast  in  values  it  may  be 
advantageous  sometimes  to  feed  them  somewhat  out  of 
equilibrium.  For  instance,  when  corn  was  low  in  price,  in 
certain  states  of  the  corn  belt  years  ago  and  clover  was  not 
plentiful,  or  not  to  be  had  at  all,  it  was  found  profitable  to 
feed  corn  out  of  equilibrium,  both  in  regard  to  the  needs 
of  the  animal  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  chemist 
and  also  that  of  the  needs  of  the  animal  as  to  bulk  require- 
ment. Again,  when  lambs  are  being  fattened  on  alfalfa  and 
grain  in  the  western  mountain  valleys  where  alfalfa  is 
very  cheap  relatively  and  grain  is  dear,  it  has  been  found 
profitable  in  some  instances  to  feed  grain  below  the  equi- 
librium of  the  requirement  in  concentration  and  to  feed 
alfalfa  above  the  same. 

The  influence  of  equilibrium  in  feeding  bulky  and  con- 
centrated foods  on  continued  production  is  very  marked. 
Feed  a  calf  too  large  a  proportion  of  concentrated  food, 
and  its  power  for  all  time  to  give  the  highest  possible  return 
for  the  food  fed  is  reduced.  It  may  be  reduced  first  from 
weakened  digestion,  or,  second,  from  want  of  development 
in  the  digestive  tract.  Feed  a  colt  too  large  a  proportion 
of  bulky  food  while  in  process  of  development,  and  its 
capacity  for  speed  will  be  lowered  because  of  the  excess  of 
paunch  development  which  it  must  carry.  Feed  a  dairy 
cow  too  large  a  proportion  of  grain  and  her  digestive  pow- 
ers will  be  permanently  injured,  because  they  have  been 
overtaxed,  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  steer  fed  so  much  grain 
that  he  loses  appetite.  With  a  due  proportion  of  bulk  to 
concentrates,  these  results  would  never  follow  in  the  cases 
named.  They  never  occur  but  they  tend  to  curtail  produc- 
tion, hence  the  great  importance  of  feeding  foods  in  equilib- 
rium as  to  bulk  and  concentration. 

Succulence  and  milk  production. — That  succulent 
foods  are  more  favorable  to  milk  production  than  those  of 
similar  analysis  as  to  nutrients  but  lacking  in  succulence, 


56  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

could  be  premised  from  the  season  of  the  year  when  mam- 
mals in  a  wild  state  nourish  their  young.  It  is  also  shown 
in  many  ways  in  the  experience  of  feeders,  and  it  has  been 
demonstrated  by  actual  experiment. 

Nature  has  so  regulated  the  influences  that  are  con- 
cerned in  reproduction,  that  animals  dependent  on  herbage 
for  sustenance  bring  forth  their  young  at  that  season  when 
the  same  is  succulent.  The  bison  of  the  western  plains 
brings  forth  her  young  when  the  spring  time  grasses  are 
tender  and  juicy.  They  are  more  abundant  in  the  autumn, 
but  they  lack  the  succulence,  hence  the  young  could  not  be 
so  well  sustained  at  that  period.  But  the  richness  of  the 
autumn  grasses  is  favorable  to  breeding,  hence  the  animals 
mate  at  that  season,  which  brings  the  young  into  existence 
at  a  time  which  is  most  favorable  for  providing  them  with 
suitable  sustenance. 

The  experience  of  feeders  has  abundantly  shown  the 
closeness  of  the  relation  between  succulence  and  milk  pro- 
duction. It  has  been  found  that  cows  in  milk,  during  win- 
ter and  spring,  invariably  increase  in  the  milk  flow  when 
first  turned  out  on  succulent  pasture.  This  result  will  follow, 
even  though  foods  possessed  of  succulence  in  a  considerable 
degree,  as  roots,  form  much  of  the  ration,  the  other  portion 
being  dry  fodder  and  grain.  When  thus  grazed  grass  usu- 
ally forms  all  the  ration,  and  is  therefore  all  succulent.  It 
is  also  highly  nutritious,  hence  as  a  result,  the  milk  flow 
is  increased.  So  invariably  does  this  result  follow,  that 
many  dairymen  plan  to  have  their  cows  produce  calves  in 
the  autumn,  that  the  milk  flow  may  be  thus  increased  again 
when  it  has  begun  to  decline.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
period  of  decline  begins  in  the  autumn,  at  that  season  when 
the  animals  are  taken  in  from  the  pasture  to  be  put  on  dry 
food,  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  prevent  it,  even  though 
they  should  be  ever  so  liberally  fed  on  dry  food.  Various 
green  foods  invariably  increase  the  milk  flow  when  they  are 
added  to  a  ration  consisting  of  dry  food.  This  result  fol- 
lows, even  though  the  nutrients  in  the  dry  food  should  be 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  57 

proportionately  reduced.  The  list  will  probably  include  all 
varieties  of  green  products  grown  upon  the  farm  when  fed 
at  a  certain  stage,  and  also  certain  other  products  when  fed 
mature.  The  former  includes  such  products  as  soiling  foods 
of  all  kinds,  the  tops  of  field  roots,  cabbage  leaves  and  rape ; 
and  the  latter  such  crops  as  corn  ensilage,  field  roots  of  all 
kinds,  cabbage  heads  and  Kohl-rabi. 

Danish  experiments  conducted  with  a  large  number  of 
eows  showed  that  feeding  roots  materially  increased  the 
milk  flow,  even  when  concentrates  were  fed  freely,  but  with 
heavy  grain  feeding  it  was  found  that  one  pound  of  the 
concentrates  was  equal  to  10  pounds  of  mangels.  With 
lighter  grain  feeding  the  results  would  probably  have  been 
more  favorable  to  the  mangels.  At  the  New  Jersey  exper- 
iment station,  it  was  found  that  silage  as  compared  with 
corn  fodder  increased  the  milk  flow  by  12.8  per  cent.  At 
the  Maine  experiment  station  corn  silage  added  to  a  ration 
of  good  hay  and  concentrates  also  materially  increased  the 
milk  yield. 

Variety  in  foods. — That  variety  in  foods  will  produce 
returns  more  satisfactory  than  can  be  obtained  frum  foods 
of  similar  analysis  but  lacking  in  variety  when  fed  for  long 
periods  is  rendered  probable  in  the  following,  and  it  may 
be  in  other  ways :  ( I )  In  the  great  variety  in  the  products 
which  nature  furnishes;  (2)  by  analogy  in  the  dietary  of 
the  human  family;  (3)  by  the  fact  that  animals  tire  sooner 
of  some  foods  than  others,  and  (4)  by  the  experience  of 
practical  feeders. 

In  nature's  garden,  the  open  prairie,  many  varieties 
of  grasses  will  be  found  on  the  same  acre  and  on  every  acre 
of  the  prairie.  This  provision  of  nature  would  seem  to 
have  a  twofold  object  in  view.  The  first  is  to  stock  the 
ground  with  plants,  each  one  of  which  will  draw  sustenance 
from  the  storehouse  in  the  soil  adapted  to  its  needs.  The 
second  is  to  furnish  that  variety  which  sustains  the  appe- 
tite in  animals,  to  the  extent  of  leading  to  increase  in  con- 
sumption which  in  turn  results  in  increased  production.  In 


58  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

this  way  an  increase  in  the  consumption  of  food  and  result- 
ant products  from  the  same  is  secured. 

The  human  family  tire  of  foods  that  furnish  no  change, 
even  though  the  foods  are  adapted  in  their  constituents  to 
the  precise  needs  of  the  body.  So  universally  is  thus  true 
that  it  needs  no  demonstration.  Analogy,  therefore,  would 
make  it  probable  that  the  same  would  be  true  of  live  stock 
which  feed  upon  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  The  table  which 
furnishes  the  greatest  variety  of  suitable  food  products  and 
properly  prepared,  is  the  table  that  is  most  frequented  in 
the  public  house.  Likewise,  the  manger  that  is  best  fur- 
nished with  variety  in  suitable  foods  is  the  one  that  will 
best  effect  the  ends  sought  from  feeding.  The  necessity 
for  variety,  however,  is  much  influenced  by  the  character 
of  the  food,  as  is  shown  later. 

That  animals  tire  of  some  foods  much  more  quickly 
than  they  do  of  others  is  certainly  true.  Of  the  grains,  for 
instance,  they  tire  much  more  quickly  of  rye  and  barley 
when  these  are  fed  as  the  exclusive  grain  ration  than  of 
oats  and  corn.  Of  the  by-products,  sheep  tire  more  quickly 
of  wheat  bran  than  of  wheat  screenings  and  swine  tire 
more  quickly  of  bran  than  of  middlings.  Corn  and  oats 
may  be  fed  with  a  relish  for  a  longer  period  probably  than 
any  other  grain.  Legumes  also,  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  cow- 
peas  may  be  fed  for  long  periods  without  the  relish  for 
them  growing  materially  less.  Animals  never  lose  the  rel- 
ish for  good  grass  with  ample  succulence,  but  they  do  for 
corn  fodder  and  sorghum,  months  after  these  have  been 
harvested. 

Every  practical  feeder  of  extended  experience  has 
found  that  suitable  variety  in  foods  is  helpful  to  him  in  his 
work.  He  has  found  this  true  especially  in  times  of  feeding 
the  same  foods  for  prolonged  periods,  even  when  the  ani- 
mals were  not  subjected  to  high  pressure  feeding.  But  when 
fed  under  pressure  the  necessity  for  variety  and  the  advan- 
tage from  the  same  is  much  increased.  This  is  especially 
true  of  animals  that  are  being  pushed  for  the  block.  The 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  59 

appetite  gets  cloyed  and  when  such  indications  appear,  they 
may  be  dispelled  for  a  time  at  least  by  substituting  another 
food  factor  for  one  of  those  fed,  or  by  adding  it  to  the 
ration  without  increasing  the  amount  fed.  Shepherds  and 
herdsmen  who  grow  and  fit  animals  for  exhibition  resort 
to  such  methods  from  time  to  time  to  promote  increase. 

The  reasons  why  a  change  in  foods  thus  promotes 
increase  are  not  all  understood.  It  would  seem  correct  to 
say  that  they  include  the  following :  ( i )  The  change  may 
meet  the  needs  of  the  system  more  perfectly  by  supplying 
nutrients  that  may  be  lacking  in  some  degree;  (2)  the 
change  may  lead  to  some  chemical  action  that  is  beneficial 
to  digestion,  and  (3)  the  influence  on  appetite  frequently 
leads  to  increased  consumption  of  food.  But  it  should  be 
remembered  that  all  changes  are  not  beneficial. 

Value  in  foods. — That  the  value  of  foods  is  influenced 
by  the  nutrients  which  they  contain  is  so  evident  that  it 
needs  no  demonstration.  But  to  take  those  nutrients  as 
the  true  measure  of  their  value  would  be  a  great  mistake 
as  has  already  been  shown.  It  is  a  mistake,  however,  of 
too  frequent  occurrence. 

That  the  condition  of  the  nutrients  exercises  a  potent 
influence  on  the  value  of  foods  is  equally  clear.  Food 
that  is  not  digestible  cannot  nourish  the  system,  although 
in  some  instances  it  has  a  mission  in  furnishing  bulk.  The 
percentage  of  the  nutrients  that  go  to  sustain  life  and  main- 
tain production,  is  that  proportion  of  the  same  which  is 
digestible.  This  varies  greatly  in  plants  of  different  varie- 
ties and  in  the  same  plants  at  different  stages  of  growth. 
Only  21  per  cent  for  instance  of  the  protein  in  rye  straw 
is  digestible,  whereas  62  per  cent  of  the  protein  in  clover 
hay  is  digestible.  Relative  digestibility,  therefore,  in  the 
value  of  foods  is  worthy  of  the  most  careful  consideration 
on  the  part  of  feeders. 

Suitability  for  the  purpose  for  which  foods  are  fed 
cannot  be  given  too  much  consideration.  Some  foods  may 
be  used  with  the  greatest  profit  in  feeding  certain  classes  of 


o  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

animals,  while  they  are  wholly  unsuited  to  other  classes  of 
the  same.  Such,  for  instance,  is  cottonseed  meal.  It  is  one 
of  the  very  best  concentrates  that  can  be  fed  to  beef  or 
dairy  cattle,  and  one  of  the  worst  that  can  be  fed  to  swine. 
In  fact,  with  the  latter  it  seems  to  act  like  slow  poison. 
Field  roots  make  a  grand  food  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep, 
but  in  large  quantities  they  would  prove  too  laxative  for 
horses.  Oats  are  unquestionably  the  best  concentrate  that 
can  be  fed  to  horses,  but  they  are  quite  unsuited  to  the 
digestion  of  young  swine.  Coarse  fodders  may  answer  quite 
well  for  store  cattle  somewhat  advanced  in  age,  whereas 
they  would  be  quite  unsuitable  for  calves  if  fed  equally 
coarse  to  them.  The  successful  feeder  must,  therefore, 
give  careful  heed  to  the  adaptation  of  foods  for  the  needs 
of  the  animals  to  which  they  are  fed. 

The  influence  which  foods  exert  on  development  and 
production  must  also  be  carefully  studied  by  those  who  are 
to  feed  them  in  the  most  profitable  manner.  One  food  is 
suited  to  development  during  the  milk  period,  but  is  not 
so  well  suited  to  the  same  at  a  later  period,  if  indeed  at  all 
suited  for  such  feeding.  Flax  fed  as  gruel  furnishes  such  a 
food.  While  exactly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  calf  fed 
on  skim  milk,  it  would  be  out  of  all  proportion  costly  for 
mature  animals.  Oats  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  young  calf,  and  because  of  their  excellence  for  such 
feeding  and  the  relatively  small  amount  required,  they  may 
in  all  instances  virtually  be  thus  fed  with  a  profit.  For  such 
feeding  they  are  much  more  suitable  than  corn.  But  when 
animals  are  more  mature  and  are  being  made  ready  for  the 
block,  while  oats  if  not  too  costly  may  form  part  of  the 
ration,  a  much  larger  proportion  of  it  should  be  corn.  Field 
roots  also  are  excellently  adapted  to  feeding  calves  and 
young  stock,  because  of  their  excellence  in  promoting 
growth  of  muscle  and  bone,  but  they  would  be  too  costly 
to  feed  in  large  quantities  to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened, 
nor  would  they  be  so  suitable  for  producing  fat  as  some 
other  foods. 


THE    SELECTION    OF    FOODS  6l 

Feed  corn  only  as  the  concentrate  to  horses  and  over- 
much fat  will  be  produced  at  the  expense  of  energy.  Feed 
bran  to  young  pigs  before  and  after  weaning,  and  they  will 
not  thrive  upon  it,  but  feed  the  same  in  large  proportion 
to  a  brood  sow  and  it  will  help  to  nourish  her  pigs  in  the 
milk  that  it  will  furnish.  Feed  all  bran  as  the  concentrate 
to  a  milch  cow  and  it  will  greatly  stimulate  the  milk  flow, 
but  at  the  expense  of  flesh.  Feed  only  corn  and  the  cow  will 
gain  flesh  at  the  expense  of  milk.  Feed  both  bran  and  corn 
and  the  result  will  be  a  fair  amount  of  milk  with  no  loss 
of .flesh. 

The  manurial  value  of  some  foods  is  so  great,  that  in 
some  instances  and  under  some  conditions,  it  approximates 
more  or  less  the  value  of  the  same  for  feeding.  Such  are 
bran,  oil  cake  and  cottonseed  meal.  The  relation  of  these 
values  will  depend,  first,  on  the  price  of  the  foods ;  second, 
on  the  cost  of  commercial  fertilizers;  and  third,  on  the 
necessity  for  using  them.  The  lower  the  cost  of  the  food, 
the  dearer  the  cost  of  the  commercial  fertilizer  and  the 
greater  the  necessity  for  applying  the  added  fertilizer,  the 
more  nearly  will  the  manurial  value  of  the  food  approximate 
the  feeding  value.  In  feeding  concentrated  foods  and  in 
some  instances  fodders,  especially  legumes,  this  question  is 
sufficiently  important  to  merit  the  most  careful  considera- 
tion when  selecting  or  providing  them. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
PRINCIPLES    THAT    GOVERN    DEVELOPMENT 

The  principles  that  govern  development  in  animals 
include  the  following:  (i)  Possible  development  is  usu- 
ally less  rapid  as  the  birth  period  is  receded  from;  (2) 
more  food  -is  called  for  to  make  development  with  advancing 
age>*  (3)  periods  of  stagnation  during  development  lessen 
capacity  for  future  development;  (4)  when  animals  that 
are  being  fattened  reach  that  stage  of  high  finish,  termed 
ripeness,  further  increase  is  made  at  a  loss;  (5)  the  rela- 
tion between  the  character  of  the  development  and  the  foods 
used  in  making  it  is  close  and  intimate;  (6)  undue  energy 
expended  or  undue  exposure  incurred  by  animals  when  tak- 
ing food  results  in  relatively  lessened  increase  in  flesh  or 
wool,  and  in  a  lessened  production  of  milk;  (7)  relative 
production  gradually  decreases  after  animals  have  reached 
the  meridian  of  vigor;  (8)  development  inferior  in  char- 
acter will  sometimes  occur,  howsoever  perfect  the  breeding 
and  management  may  be  and  (9)  development  in  what 
may  be  termed  equilibrium  is  most  conducive  to  continued 
well  doing  in  the  animals  of  a  stud,  herd  or  flock.  Each  of 
these  principles  has  the  strength  of  inexorable  law. 

Development  and  decrease. — That  possible  develop- 
ment is  usually  less  rapid  as  the  birth  period  is  receded 
from  arises,  first,  from  the  changing  character  of  the  diges- 
tion ;  second,  from  the  changing  character  of  the  foods  fed, 
and  third,  from  the  gradual  increase  called  for  in  the  food 
of  maintenance  from  birth_to  maturity. 

The  digestive  and  assimilative  processes  are  most 
active  at  birth,  and  become  gradually  less  so,  until  finally 
these  become  unable  longer  to  sustain  life.  It  is  not  the 
amount  of  food  consumed  which  sustains  labor  or  furnishes 
tissue  to  promote  growth,  but  rather  the  amount  digested 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  ANIMALS  63 

and  more  especially  the  amount  assimilated  in  the  processes 
of  digestion.  This  is  clearly  evidenced  in  the  fact  that  during 
the  finishing  process  two  animals  will  consume  practically 
the  same  amount  of  food  and  yet  one  will  make  about  twice 
as  much  increase  as  the  other. 

The  foods  fed  usually  change  from  the  more  to  the 
less  concentrated  forms,  as  with  advancing  age,  the  capac- 
ity to  dige,st  more  relative  bulk  continually  increases. 
These,  as  a  rule,  if  not  indeed  always,  have  more  of  crude 
fibre  in  them,  hence  the  energy  required  to  digest  such 
foods  is  more  than  is  required  to  digest  the  former  in  pro- 
portion to  the  nutriment  obtained.  More  digestive  energy 
is  used  for  instance  in  obtaining  a  given  amount  of  nutri- 
ment from  timothy  hay  than  in  obtaining  the  same  from 
whole  milk,  and  more  energy  is  used  in  obtaining  the 
nutriment  from  ripe  timothy  hay  than  in  obtaining  it  from 
timothy  cut  at  the  blossoming  stage. 

The  food  of  maintenance  gradually  increases  with  ad- 
vancing age.  This  arises  first,  from  the  increased  demand 
on  nutrition  to  sustain  the  enlarging  frame,  to  maintain 
animal  heat  in  the  larger  body  surface  exposed,  and  to 
drive  properly  the  machinery  of  digestion  with  the  increase 
in  performance  put  upon  it,  and  to  repair  the  greater  waste 
of  tissue  relatively  because  of  increase  in  the  fleshy  domain 
where  waste  occurs.  After  the  meridian  of  growth  has 
been  attained,  the  decrease  in  the  activity  of  assimilation 
and  the  increase  in  the  waste  of  tissue  call  for  increasing 
quantities  of  food  to  sustain  the  animal,  hence  so  much  less 
is  left  for  production. 

This  law  of  development  is  fittingly  illustrated  in  the 
gains  made  by  calves,  lambs  and  foals  at  different  stages 
of  growth.  There  is  no  real  difficulty  in  securing  two 
pounds  of  gain  daily  during  the  first  year  of  the  life  of  a 
calf,  not  including  the  weight  at  birth.  It  is  more  difficult 
to  secure  an  average  daily  gain  in  the  same  animal  of  1^4 
pounds  the  second  year,  and  of  1^2  pounds  the  third  year. 
A  lamb  well  nourished  may  be  made  to  gain  from  say,  0.6 


64  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

to  0.9  pounds  per  day  the  first  month,  exclusive  of  the 
birth  weight.  The  second  month  0.5  pounds  would  be  a 
good  gain  and  even  during  the  fattening  period  at  from 
six  to  nine  months  0.3  pounds  of  increase  is  considered  an 
excellent  daily  gain.  Well  nourished  foals  of  the  draft  type 
may  be  made  to  increase  2  to  3  pounds  per  day  during 
the  first  month,  but  with  them  also  relative  increase  becomes 
slower  as  they  grow  older. 

Swine  furnish  an  exception  to  this  rule.  During  the 
nursing  period,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  secure  a  pound  of 
increase  in  the  young  pigs  daily.  Subsequently,  when  from 
three  to  four  months  old,  they  may  be  made  to  gain  i  pound 
a  day  and  even  more,  but  after  a  time  with  them  also  pos- 
sible increase  lessens.  Just  why  possible  gains  in  swine  are 
greater  subsequent  to  the  weaning  period  is  not  absolutely 
clear.  It  is  possible  that  il?  may  arise  from  the  inability  of 
the  animal  to  take  enough  food  into  its  relatively  small 
stomach  to  make  such  gains  possible. 

Development  and  more  food. — That  more  food  is 
called  for  to  make  equal  increase  as  age  advances  will  be 
readily  apparent  when  it  is  called  to  mind  first,  that  the  food 
of  maintenance  increases  relatively  as  age  advances  (see 
page  63),  and  second,  that  as  stated  above,  the  digestive 
processes  grow  less  and  less  active  with  advancing  age. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  food  of  maintenance  increases 
with  advancing  age.  It  is  self-evident  that  a  cattle  beast 
at  the  age  of  three  years  will  take  more  food  to  drive  the 
machinery  of  digestion  than  the  same  at  three  months.  It 
is  also  self-evident,  that  if,  as  has  been  previously 
stated  and  which  is  certainly  true  (see  page  62),  the  diges- 
tive processes  grow  less  active  and  the  waste  of  tissue  .be- 
comes greater  with  advancing  age,  that  more  food  relatively 
will  be  required  to  make  increase  as  the  animal  grows 
older.  A  point  will  at  length  be  reached  in  development 
beyond  which  increase  cannot  be  made  in  flesh  and  weight, 
and  yet  a  large  amount  of  food  must  needs  be  fed  daily  in 
order  to  maintain  weight,  hence  the  folly  of  keeping  such 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   ANIMALS  65 

animals  longer  for  meat  production,  after  they  have  reached 
a  maximum  development.  Even  with  immature  animals,  a 
point  may  be  reached  beyond  which  development  may  be 
so  slow  as  to  render  further  feeding  unprofitable. 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  because  more  food  nu- 
trients are  required  to  make  a  pound  of  increase  as  the 
birth  period  is  receded  from,  such  increase  necessarily  en- 
tails greater  cost  while  making  it.  Frequently  it  does  not. 
The  cost  of  such  production  is  largely  determined  by  the 
relative  cost  of  the  foods  used  in  making  it,  hence,  even 
though  25  per  cent  more  increase  should  be  obtained  the 
first  year  in  the  life  of  a  cattle  beast  than  is  obtained  the  sec- 
ond year,  and  though  less  food  nutrients  should  be  used 
in  making  it,  the  relative  cost  of  increase  the  second  year 
may  be  less  relatively  than  the  first  year.  This  will  cer- 
tainly be  true  if  the  animal  has  been  fed  chiefly  on  whole 
milk  and  concentrated  foods  the  first  year,  and  chiefly  on 
pasture  and  cheap  roughage  the  second  year. 

This  difference  in  the  relative  cost  of  the  foods  fed  in 
making  meat  especially,  exerts  a  far  reaching  influence  on 
profits.  It  explains  why,  under  intensive  conditions  of 
farming  where  foods  are  high  priced,  cows  which  only 
furnish  milk  for  their  calves  yield  little  or  no  profit,  while 
a  substantial  profit  may  be  thus  produced  by  them  when 
maintained  under  extensive  conditions.  It  explains  why 
under  some  conditions,  the  quickest  maturity  attainable  is 
not  always  the  most  profitable,  and  it  explains  why  it  may 
be  more  profitable  in  the  end  under  some  conditions  to 
winter  cattle  and  other  animals  on  a  comparatively  unnu- 
tritious  diet,  in  order  to  secure  subsequent  growth  on  pas- 
tures that  are  very  cheap  or  entirely  free. 

Development  and  capacity. — That  periods  of  stagna- 
tion in  growth  during  development  tend  to  lessen  future 
possible  development  has  been  proved  by  observation  and 
experience  in  unnumbered  instances.  This  loss  in  capacity 
may  arise  from  a  deficiency  in  the  quantity  of  suitable  food 
fed,  from  feeding  unsuitable  food,  from  excessive  feeding 


66  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

of  foods  that  may  or  may  not  be  suitable  and  in  balance,  or 
from  exposure,  or  from  unsuitable  feeding  combined  with 
undue  exposure. 

A  calf  may  be  fed  food  that  is  just  right  in  its  propor- 
tionate constituents,  but  if  the  quantity  fed  is  quite  below  the 
needs  of  the  animal,  there  must,  of  course,  be  a  corre- 
sponding deficiency  in  growth.  A  habit  of  digestion  will 
thus  be  formed  which  unfits  the  stomach  and  digestive 
apparatus  for  digesting  large  quantities  of  food  to  the  best 
possible  advantage. 

If  the  foods  fed  are  unsuitable,  the  loss  in  capacity 
for  development  will  be  greater,  and  if  they  are  deficient 
in  quantity,  the  evil  is  intensified.  Thus  it  is,  that  if  a 
young  calf  is  fed  for  a  prolonged  period  on  whole  milk, 
but  insufficient  in  supply,  it  will  be  lean  and  lack  growth, 
but  still  may  retain  shapes  that  are  reasonably  correct. 
The  relative  proportion  of  bone  may  be  unduly  large  and 
the  hair  may  be  more  than  normal  in  quantity,  the  outcome 
probably  in  both  instances  of  a  provision  of  nature  thus 
to  give  strength  to  the  ill-covered  framework  and  to  pro- 
vide warmth  for  it.  Should  the  food  be  in  ill  balance,  de- 
velopment will  be  further  arrested.  Should  it  be  unsuited 
to  the  age  of  the  animal,  as  when  young  calves  are  forced 
to  live  largely  on  grass,  unbalanced  as  well  as  insufficient 
development  follows.  There  is  undue  distension  of  the 
stomach  at  too  early  an  age,  resulting  in  an  excess  of 
paunch,  which  the  animal  retains  through  life. 

Should  the  animal  be  correctly  fed,  but  unduly  ex- 
posed, development  will  be  proportionately  arrested.  Should 
it  be  fed  food  under  such  conditions,  correct  in  balance, 
but  deficient  in  quantity,  the  loss  in  development  will  be 
correspondingly  more.  But  if  in  addition,  the  food  is 
unbalanced  and  not  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  animal,  then 
development  is  still  more  arrested,  and  in  conjunction 
therewith  comes  ill-balanced  development,  that  is,  undue 
development  of  some  parts  in  proportion  to  development 
in  other  parts.  A  striking  illustration  is  furnished  by  whey 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   ANIMALS  67 

fed  calves,  reared  under  conditions  of  undue 'exposure.  Rela- 
tively they  have  an  excessive  amount  of  bone  and  paunch, 
and  hair  unduly  long  and  staring.  The  machinery  of  diges- 
tion has  not  only  been  weakened,  but  it  has  become  un- 
balanced, and  never  again  can  it  produce  entire  correctness 
of  development  or  a  complete  sufficiency  of  the  same. 

This  loss  in  capacity  for  correct  development  is  pro- 
portionate not  only  to  the  intensity  of  the  causes  which  pro- 
duce it,  but  it  is  intensified  by  the  proportionate  nearness 
to  or  remoteness  from  the  birth  period  at  which  it  occurs. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  development  in  one  case  is  arrested 
and  distorted  while  the  animal  is  being  fed  milk,  and  sup- 
pose in  another  case  that  the  hindrance  to  correct  develop- 
ment does  not  occur  until  the  animal  is  a  yearling,  the  loss 
in  capacity  for  future  development  will  be  much  less  in  the 
second  instance  than  in  the  first,  for  the  reason  that  correct 
habit  in  digestion  had  been  duly  formed  in  the  second 
instance,  while  in  the  first  it  had  been  given  incorrect  bias 
during  the  formative  period. 

The  same  thing  will  happen  should  the  animals  be  over- 
fed, that  is,  should  they  be  given  an  excessive  amount  of 
concentrated  foods.  Development  will  not  only  be  checked 
for  the  time  being,  but  the  capacity  for  future  development 
will  also  be  lessened.  This  law  or  principle  of  develop- 
ment will  be  operative,  not  only  during  the  period  of 
development,  but  even  subsequently  to  the  maturing  period. 
But  the  evils  resulting  from  such  over-feeding  are  more 
disastrous  relatively  the  nearer  that  they  occur  to  the 
birth  period. 

Some  foods  cannot  be  fed  to  excess,  in  the  sense  that 
feeding  them  in  unlimited  quantities  will  derange  digestion. 
Such,  for  instance,  are  grass  and  good  clover  hay.  Of 
course  it  would  be  possible  to  require  the  animal  to  take 
so  much  of  these  as  to  interfere  with  highest  possible  per- 
formance in  certain  directions.  To  illustrate ;  An  animal 
may  be  required  to  consume  so  large  a  proportion  of  grass 
when  it  is  being  fitted  for  exhibition,  as  to  make  impossible 


68  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

such  increase  for  the  time  being  as  would  result  from 
feeding  grass  and  a  larger  proportion  of  concentrated  grain 
foods.  Similarly,  the  production  of  a  dairy  cow  will  be 
less  when  fed  on  good  clover  hay  alone,  than  when  fed  on 
clover  hay  and  a  certain  allowance  of  suitable  concentrated 
foods,  but  neither  the  grass  sufficiently  advanced  in  growth 
nor  the  clover  hay  will  derange  digestion  in  bovines  how- 
soever liberally  fed. 

It  is  not  so,  however,  with  concentrated  foods.  At  a 
comparatively  early  age,  in  fact  but  a  few  months  from 
the  birth  period,  a  calf  will  partake  of  rye,  barley  or  corn 
meal  so  freely  if  allowed  to,  that  digestion  becomes  de- 
ranged. A  strain  is  put  on  its  machinery  which  it  cannot 
bear,  and  it  becomes  impaired  to  the  extent  of  the  excess 
of  the  ill  balance  in  the  food  nutrients  given.  Thus  it  is, 
that  young  animals  being  fitted  for  show  purposes  fre- 
quently break  down  under  the  heavy  tax  put  upon  their 
digestive  capacity,  and  so  have  to  be  laid  aside.  Many  an 
animal  possessed  of  the  requisites  that  would  have  enabled 
it  to  win  champion  honors  with  suitable  feeding,  has  thus 
been  forever  unfitted  for  entering  the  show  ring. 

The  hazard  from  feeding  concentrated  foods  to  excess 
with  young  animals  varies  with  the  kind  of  the  concentrate 
and  with  the  age  at  which  it  is  fed.  The  proneness  of  ani- 
mals to  consume  concentrated  foods  in  excess  when  the 
opportunity  is  present  would  seem  to  increase  with  ad- 
vancing age.  Calves  quite  young  are  not  much  liable  to 
partake  of  such  foods  greatly  in  excess  of  what  will  benefit 
them,  but  it  is  entirely  different  a  few  months  later.  Of 
all  the  concentrated  grain  foods  fed,  oats  is  the  safest  by 
far  for  horses,  mules,  cattle  and  sheep,  when  fed  in  un- 
measured quantities.  This  is  owing  to  the  relatively  happy 
balance  between  the  nutrients  and  to  the  suitable  bulk  rela- 
tion that  exists  between  the  hull  and  kernel  portion  of  this 
grain.  Other  grain  foods,  such  as  corn,  rye,  and  barley 
fed  thus  freely,  puts  a  tax  upon  the  digestive  processes 
which  they  are  unable  to  bear,  gives  the  assimilative  powers 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  ANIMALS  69 

more  material  than  they  can  adjust  to  the  needs  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  puts  an  impossible  task  upon  the  secretions.  The 
whole  system  as  it  were  becomes  clogged,  and  in  propor- 
tion as  it  does  the  machinery  of  digestion  suffers  beyond 
the  possibility  of  absolute  recovery. 

With  matured  animals  the  same  law  or  principle  is 
operative,  both  with  regard  to  increase  and  production. 
Feed  the  grown  animal  in  the  feed  lot  excessively  on  rich 
concentrated  grain  foods,  and  it  gets  "off  feed."  This 
means  that  the  digestive  functions  have  been  overtaxed  and 
must  have  rest.  Nature  to  provide  this  causes  the  appetite 
to  fail.  Prompt  withholding  of  the  grain  portion  of  the 
ration  may  bring  about  measurable  restoration,  but  the  ani- 
mal will  not  again  bear  being  thus  fed  so  heavily  during 
the  finishing  period.  Even  should  recovery  be  almost  com- 
plete, the  cost  of  maintenance  has  been  incurred  meanwhile, 
with  little  or  no  advance  in  the  weight  of  the  animal. 

Once  overtax  the  digestion  of  a  cow  in  milk,  by  thus 
overfeeding  her,  and  similar  results  follow.  Production 
lessens  and  in  proportion  to  the  overstrain  put  upon  the 
digestive  machinery,  so  to  speak,  of  the  cow,  even  though 
there  should  be  no  sudden  break,  down  in  the  machinery 
of  digestion,  there  may  be  a  weakening  so  gradual  as  to 
be  imperceptible.  This  may  be  so  gradual  as  to  cover  a 
period  of -several  years.  Its  presence  may  only  be  discern- 
ible in  lessened  capacity  for  milk  production,  notwithstand- 
ing the  consumption  of  the  same  quantities  of  food  as  were 
consumed  when  the  production  was  greater.  Thus  it  is 
that  by  high  pressure  feeding  of  concentrates,  the  capacity 
of  a  cow  may  be  so  reduced  as  to  materially  lessen  the 
profit  that  would  otherwise  be  obtained  from  her.  It  may 
also  materially  shorten  the  period  of  possible  profitable 
usefulness. 

It  will  be  readily  apparent  that  the  loss  thus  recurring 
from  such  underfeeding  or  overfeeding,  will  be  far  more 


7O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

serious  in  breeding  than  in  feeding  animals,  more  particu- 
larly during  the  period  of  finishing.  With  animals,  there- 
fore, that  are  being  reared  or  kept  for  breeding,  it  is  doubly 
important  that  these  mistakes  shall  be  avoided. 

Development  and  ripeness. — When  animals  approach 
the  ripening  period,  the  capacity  to  make  gains  gradually 
decreases,  and  if  kept  up  for  a  period  sufficiently  long,  will 
at  length  cease  altogether.  Notwithstanding,  the  consump- 
tion of  food  will  be  practically  the  same.  The  feeder  who 
does  not  watch  this  point  closely  may  thus  unconsciously 
allow  what  would  have  resulted  in  substantial  profit,  had 
the  animals  been  sold  at  the  opportune  time,  to  be  greatly 
reduced  if  not  indeed  turned  into  positive  loss. 

Ripeness  in  meat  making  may  be  defined  as  that  com- 
pleteness of  finish  which  puts  animals  in  the  best  condition 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  market,  just  as  ripeness  in  the 
carcass  after  it  is  slaughtered  means  that  condition  of 
increase  in  tenderness  of  muscle  which  best  meets  the  taste 
of  the  consumer.  Fruit  is  ripe  when  it  has  reached  the 
maximum  of  fitness  for  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  it. 
Usually,  in  meat  production,  ripeness  means  the  same  as 
completed  fattening.  This  may  be  attained  at  almost  any 
stage  of  development  in  some  types  of  animals,  though  not 
in  all,  hence  it  is  not  necessarily  synonymous  with  com- 
pleted maturity. 

Before  maturity  it  can  be  most  readily  attained  in  ani- 
mals of  compact  build  and  of  marked  meat-making  ten- 
dencies through  natural  inheritance.  Cattle  of  the  pro- 
nounced dairy  types  cannot  be  so  effectively  ripened  at  an 
early  age  as  cattle  of  the  pronounced  beef  types  and  the 
same  is  true  of  bacon  swine  as  compared  with  the  small 
breeds,  such  as  the  Essex  and  Small  Yorkshire. 

The  stage  of  development  at  which  ripeness  may  be 
reached  is  dependent  on  the  character  of  the  foods  fed,  the 
manner  of  feeding  them  and  the  forced  character  of  the 
feeding.  Foods  highly  carbonaceous  hasten  such  ripening, 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  ANIMALS  71 

and  those  highly  nitrogenous  prolong  and  defer  the  ripen- 
ing period.  Early  ripening  is  accelerated  by  so  preparing 
foods  that  the  least  possible  amount  of  energy  is  used  in 
masticating  and  digesting  them,  as  when,  for  instance,  ce- 
reals'are  ground  rather  than  fed  whole.  It  is  likewise  has- 
tened by  feeding  so  forced,  that  after  a  time  relative  in- 
crease lessens  materially  and  finally  ceases  altogether,  it 
may  be  at  a  period  considerably  in  advance  of  the  normal 
period  of  maturity  for  that  particular  class  of  animals. 
But  ripeness  also  applies  to  animals  that  are  being  fattened 
subsequent  to  the  maturing  period,  in  which  case  it  means 
that  stage  of  finish  in  which  profitable  gains  cease. 

Three,  methods  may  be  adopted  in  determining  ripe- 
ness: (i)  It  may  be  ascertained  through  the  medium 
of  the  eye;  (2)  the  hand  and  (3)  the  weigh  scale.  In 
some  instances  judgment  must  be  determined  by  the  first 
medium,  as  when  range  cattle  are  sorted  out  for  shipment 
to  the  block.  In  other  instances  the  eye  and  hand  may  both 
be  used,  as  when  animals  are  fed  in  the  stall.  In  yet  other 
instances,  all  three  mediums  may  be  resorted  to  when  weigh 
scales  are  easily  accessible. 

The  indications  of  ripeness  apparent  to  the  eye  include : 
(i)  That  plumpness  and  fulness  of  form  in  cattle  which 
covers  well  the  ribs  and  angular  points;  (2)  fulness  under- 
neath the  throat  in  both  sexes,  and  in  the  purse  of  steers; 
(3)  lateral  movement  back  and  forth  over  the  shoulder 
and  bunching  of  the  flesh  at  the  hind  flank  when  the  ani- 
mal walks;  and  (4)  measured  and  deliberate  rather  than 
quick  locomotion.  These  indications  are  never  all  present 
in  the  same  animal  unless  it  has  been  brought  to  a  high 
condition  of  finish.  With  sheep  the  indications  would  be 
much  the  same,  but  when  covered  with  a  fleece  only  that 
kst  mentioned  is  apparent.  With  swine  the  most  impor- 
tant indications  include  fulness,  completeness  and  massive- 
ness  of  covering  over  the  body,  and  especially  in  the  lard 


72  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

types  sluggish  locomotion.  With  bacon  types  so  much  fin- 
ish would  be  excessive.  The  degree  of  the  same  can  only 
be  obtained  from  experience. 

The  indications  that  come  through  touch  in  cattle  are 
found:  (i)  In  the  depth  and  mellowness  of  the  fatty 
covering  over  the  pin  bones,  and  (2)  in  the  relative  firm- 
ness of  the  muscles,  under  gentle  pressure  of  the  finger 
tips.  The  pin  bones  do  not  become  thus  covered  unless  the 
animal  has  reached  an  advanced  stage  of  fattening.  The 
degree  of  the  firmness  of  flesh  in  the  muscles  is  influenced 
by  maturity  in  the  animal,  being  of  course  greater  under 
equal  degrees  of  finish  with  advancing  age.  This  firmness 
is  by  no  means  the  same  as  hardness  of  flesh  in  the  poor 
feeding  animal,  and  it  does  not  mean  that  there  shall  be  any 
want  of  vibrating  power  in  the  skin  over  the  ribs  under 
gentle  lateral  pressure  of  the  open  hand,  such  as  is  found 
in  animals  that  feed  slowly.  With  cattle  in  the  less  ad- 
vanced stages  of  fattening,  the  muscles  are  soft  and  yield 
more  under  gentle  pressure  than  those  in  the  ripe  animal. 
This  increasing  firmness  of  muscle  is  caused  by  the  firming 
of  the  fatty  tissue  within  and  over  the  muscles,  and  it  is 
best  ascertained  on  those  parts  of  the  body  most'  deeply 
covered  with  muscle.  With  sheep,  these  indications  are 
ascertained  in  much  the  same  way  as  with  cattle,  with  the 
difference,  that  more  frequently  the  handling  is  confined 
to  the  pin  bones  and  the  fatty  tissue  around  the  tail  head. 
The  fleece,  when  present,  interferes  somewhat  with  exami- 
nation through  light  pressure  over  the  muscles.  Swine  are 
seldom  handled  in  order  to  judge  of  ripeness,  but  firmness 
of  flesh  may  be  ascertained  with  them  also  by  hand  pressure. 

There  are  instances,  however,  in  which  firmness  of  flesh 
will  not  be  present,  even  though  the  animal  has  practically 
ceased  to  make  increase  in  flesh,  as  when  it  has  been  fat- 
tened on  food  possessed  of  an  excessive  amount  of  oil.  Such, 
for  instance,  is  the  flesh  of  swine  fattened  on  beechnuts 
and  peanuts.  It  is  indicated  by  excessive  softness  of  the 
muscles.  Such  a  condition  of  flesh  is  improved  by  feeding 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  ANIMALS  73 

the  animal  for  a  longer  period  on  food'  less  rich  in  fat. 
Furthermore,  it  will  be  apparent  that  proficiency  in  judging 
of  such  indications  can  only  be  obtained  through  expe- 
rience. 

The  weigh  scale  properly  used  is  a  sure  indication  of 
ripeness  in  animals  that  are  being  fattened  on  suitable  foods. 
If,  when  weighed  occasionally,  as  for  instance  every  two 
weeks,  at  an  advanced  stage  of  the  fattening  process,  they 
show  little  or  no  gain,  the  feeding  at  the  same  time  being 
correct,  it  is  so  far  an  indication  that  they  are  ripe.  Care 
should  be  taken,  however,  to  weigh  from  time  to  time,  under 
the  same  conditions,  or  the  weights  obtained  may  mislead. 

The  loss  resulting  from  continuing  to  feed  animals  that 
are  ripe  is  influenced  by  the  age,  and  probably  to  a  greater 
extent  by  the  price  of  foods.  The  more  mature  the  animal, 
the  slower  will  be  the  gains  subsequently  to  the  ripening 
of  the  animal.  A  yearling  steer  may  be  ripe  enough  to 
meet  the  conditions  of  the  market,  and  yet  be  capable  of 
making  considerable  increase  subsequently,  whereas  a  ma- 
ture steer  thus  ripened  would  make  but  little  increase  and 
under  some  conditions,  none  at  all.  The  influence  of  food 
prices  is  so  apparent  as  to  need  no  discussion. 

The  importance  of  prompt  marketing  when  the  animals 
are  ripe  is  apparent  from  sundry  tests  made  by  certain  of 
the  agricultural  experiment  stations.  During  90  days  in 
feeding  swine  at  the  Ontario  station  in  1891,  under  the 
direction  of  the  author,  pork  was  made  at  a  cost  of  $4.65  per 
100  pounds  live  weight.  During  the  47  days  of  subsequent 
feeding  on  the  same  kinds  of  food,  the  cost  was  $14.93  Per 
100  pounds.  During  five  months'  feeding  of  steers  at  the 
Nebraska  station  in  1905,  the  average  daily  gain  made  was 
2  pounds.  The  following  month  it  fell  to  i1/^  pounds.  It 
may  be  prudent,  nevertheless,  to  hold  over  finished  ani- 
mals for  a  period  of  relatively  short  duration  when  the  con- 
dition of  the  market  has  become  unsettled,  as  from  excess 
in  supplies  or  from  some  other  cause. 


74  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Development  and  food. — The  character  of  the  develop- 
ment secured  is  influenced  by  inheritance,  environment  and 
nutrition.  The  most  potent  of  these  is  nutrition,  which  is 
another  way  of  saying  that  the  most  potent  influence  in 
securing  development  of  a  certain  kind,  is  the  character  of 
the  food  used  in  making  it :  The  food  consumed  influences 

1 i )  meat  production  in  regard  to  quantity  and  quality ; 

(2)  milk  production  with  reference  to  quantity  and  quality; 

(3)  the   quantity   and   character   of  bone;    (4)    the   char- 
acter and  abundance  of  the  coat,  and  (5)  the  production  of 
energy.    The  relation  between  equilibrium  or  balance  in  the 
development  secured  and  equilibrium  in  the  foods  used  in 
making  it,  is  of  the  closest  character,  as  has  already  been 
shown  (see  page  43). 

The  bearing  of  food  upon  the  production  of  flesh  with 
reference  to  quantity  is  so  self-evident  that  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  discuss  it.  Illustrations  are  readily  found  in 
the  contrast  between  the  development  of  the  calf  that  is 
suckled  by  its  own  dam  and  the  calf  fed  on  whey,  also  in  the 
contrast  between  the  yearling  steer  wintered  only  on  straw 
and  the  same  animal  the  following  summer,  when  grazed 
upon  plentiful  pastures.  The  largest  production  will  be 
obtained  from  foods  which  contain  the  largest  amount  of 
nutriment  possessed  of  the  most  suitable  digestibility  and 
fed  with  due  reference  to  balance  in  the  food  constituents 
and  also  bulk  requirements  or  the  opposite. 

Quality  in  meat  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
table,  has  reference  to  fibre  or  grain,  tenderness  or  tough- 
ness, proportion  of  fat  to  lean,  and  the  character  of  the  fat 
and  the  flavor.  All  these  unless  the  last,  are  influenced  by 
inheritance  and1  to  some  extent  by  exercise,  age  and  envi- 
ronment, but  less  so  in  all  or  in  nearly  all  these  respects 
than  they  are  influenced  by  food. 

The  fibre,  composing  the  muscle  or  lean  portion  in 
meat  is  sometimes  large  and  coarse,  in  other  instances,  it  is 
fine.  The  former  is  present  to  a  much  greater  extent  in 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ANIMALS  ^5 

large  than  in  small  breeds.  The  nature  -of  the  food  pro- 
vided, more  than  any  other  influence,  accounts  for  the  differ- 
ence in  size  referred  to.  The  luxuriant  and  somewhat 
coarse  grasses  of  Lincolnshire,  England,  have  produced  the 
largest  breed  of  sheep  in  the  world.  The  fine,  short  grasses 
of  the  Downs  in  proximity  to  the  English  channel,  have 
produced  one  of  the  smallest  breeds,  the  Southdown.  The 
fibre  or  grain  of  the  meat  in  the  Southdown  is  much  finer 
than  in  the  Lincoln.  Similarly  coarse  fodders  will  produce 
coarser  fibre  than  fine  fodders.  Thus,  if  a  long  enough  time 
were  given,  the  Southdown  could,  in  the  fibre  of  its  meat, 
be  transformed  into  a  Lincoln  and  vice  versa.  Of  course, 
fineness  of  fibre  enhances  the  quality  of  meat. 

The  tenderness  or  toughness  of  meat  is  markedly  in- 
fluenced by  age,  but  it  is  also  greatly  influenced  by  the 
food  and  the  manner  of  feeding  it.  Succulence  in  food  is 
one  of  the  most  potent  influences  in  producing  tenderness 
and  also  juiciness  in  meat.  Lamb  grown  and  finished  on 
such  foods  as  succulent  bluegrass  and  rape,  will  furnish 
meat  more  tender  and  juicy  than  lamb  grown  on  the  less 
succulent  grasses  of  the  range.  Beef  made  from  feeding 
corn  ensilage  or  field  roots  freely  to  cattle  that  are  being 
fattened  is  more  tender  and  juicy  than  that  made  from 
feeding  dry  food  only.  Similarly  the  meat  of  aged  animals 
is  more  tender  when  they  have  been  brought  up  quickly 
from  a  low  to  a  high  condition  of  flesh  than  when  the  feed- 
ing period  is  slower  and  more  prolonged,  owing  probably  to 
the  short  period  given  to  the  newly  formed  tissue  to  firm 
and  harden  as  it  otherwise  would. 

The  tenderness  of  meat  is  much  influenced  by  the  pro- 
portion of  the  fat  to  the  lean,  and  by  the  way  in  which  it 
is  distributed.  There  is  a  constant  relation  between  lean- 
ness and  toughness  and  high  condition  and  tenderness  and 
juiciness.  Even  the  lean  of  a  fat  carcass  will  be  more 
tender  than  the  lean  of  a  lean  carcass,  and  it  will  be  much 
more  juicy.  But  both  tenderness  and  juiciness  in  meat 
are  more  influenced  by  the  manner  in  which  the  fat  is 


?  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

distributed  than  by  the  amount  of  it  present.  In  some 
instances  the  fat  is  laid  on  in  great  measure  externally  and 
internally.  In  other  instances,  it  is  more  distributed  through 
the  lean,  sometimes^  in  the  form  of  layers  of  fat  and  lean 
alternating,  and  sometimes  in  the  flecking  of  the  lean  with 
little  pockets  as  it  were  of  fat.  Inheritance  exercises  some 
influence  over  the  manner  in  which  fat  is  distributed  in 
the  carcass,  and  the  same  is  true  of  exercise,  but  it  is  prob- 
ably correct  to  say  that  neither  influence  is  so  potent  as 
food  in  producing  the  results  desired.  Young  ani- 
mals so  fed,  that  they  are  always  in  a  good  condition  of 
thrift  and  flesh,  but  without  excess  of  fatness,  will  have  a 
more  perfect  distribution  of  fat  and  lean  than  if  allowed 
to  lose  flesh  for  a  period  more  or  less  prolonged  and  are 
then  fleshed  up  quickly.  The  most  perfect  distribution  of 
fat  and  lean  can,  of  course,  be  obtained  when  the  three 
modifying  influences;  viz.,  inheritance,  exercise  and  bal- 
anced foods  are  fed  in  due  quantity.  The  side  of  the  bacon 
pig  furnishes  a  good  illustration  of  the  deposition  of  fat 
and  lean  in  layers,  and  the  loin  of  an  Aberdeen- Angus,  an 
illustration  of  lean  flecked  with  fat. 

That  the  flavor  of  meat  is  influenced  more  or  less  by 
food  is  shown:  (i)  In  the  excellent  flavor  of  mutton 
grown  upon  mountains,  caused  by  the  variety  and  to  some 
extent  the  aromatic  character  of  the  plants  from  which 
it  is  produced;  (2)  in  the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  meat  of 
wild  animals  and  in  the  difference  of  the  flavors,  owing 
largely  to  the  difference  in  the  foods  selected  by  them,  and 
(3)  in  the  peculiar  flavor,  in  a  sense  amounting  to  a  taint, 
of  the  flesh  of  the  sage  hen  of  the  western  plains  and 
of  domestic  animals  which  have  fed  much  on  pastures 
abounding  in  penny  cress  (Thlaspi  arvensc.} 

The  influence  of  food  on  increase  in  milk  production 
is  readily  apparent:  (i)  When  a  change  is  made  from 
a  diet  dry  and  without  succulence  as  from  fodder  corn  to 
corn  ensilage,  from  dry  winter  foods  to  succulent  pastures, 
or  when  dry  pastures  abundant  in  the  quantity  of  the  grass 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ANIMALS  77 

furnished  are  supplemented  by  such  food  ats  green  corn  or 
rape,  and  (.2),  by  changing  from  a  ration  essentially  car- 
bonaceous to  one  nitrogenou5  in  character,  or  sufficiently 
so  to  furnish  food  approximately  in  balance,  such  a  change 
may  be  made  by  substituting  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  for  corn 
stover,  or  meal  composed  largely  of  wheat  bran  or  gluten 
meal  for  corn  meal. 

Quality  in  milk  is  also  affected  by  the  food,  first,  with 
reference  to  the  constituents  which  it  contains,  and  second, 
with  reference  to  its  flavor.  The  first  influence  is  so  slow 
in  its  action  as  to  be  virtually  imperceptible  under  normal 
conditions.  To  illustrate:  Feed,  under  normal  conditions, 
a  Jersey  cow  whose  milk  is  very  rich  in  butter  fat,  food  that 
will  test  practically  the  same,  but  it  will  be  reduced  in  quan- 
tity. Reverse  the  process  of  feeding  and  it  will  still  test 
practically  the  same,  but  will  increase  in  quantity  up  to  a 
certain  limit.  The  quality  of  milk,  therefore,  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  direct  influence  of  food  upon  its  essential 
constituents,  is  not  perceptibly  influenced  thereby.  The 
percentage  of  butter  fat  and  other  constituents  will  be 
just  the  same,  except  the  total  quantity  of  these  will  be  in- 
creased or  decreased  with  such  increase  or  decrease  in  the 
total  milk  product  from  a  cow,  within  a  given  time,  as  may 
be  brought  about  by  the  character  of  the  food  fed. 

The  quality  in  milk,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  its 
analysis,  is  almost  entirely  a  matter  of  transmission,  and 
it  is  probably  more  a  breed  peculiarity  than  a  matter  of 
individual  inheritance  and  yet  the  importance  of  individual 
inheritance  is  not  to  be  under-estimated.  The  Channel 
island  breeds  are  characterized  by  the  production  of  milk 
only  moderate  in  quantity,  but  rich  in  butter  fat.  The 
Holsteins  on  the  other  hand  are  characterized  by  the  pro- 
duction of  a  large  quantity  of  milk,  and  relatively  low  in 
butter  fat.  But  these  differences  in  the  character  of  the 
milk  are  not  due  to  inheritance  and  selection  alone.  They 
are  due  also  to  the  action  of  food  producing  change  so 
slowly  as  to  be  imperceptible,  except  when  measured  by 


78  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

decades  or  even  centuries.  The  short,  rich  grasses  of  the 
Channel  islands  have  certainly  exercised  an  influence  on 
the  richness  which  characterizes  cows  of  that  breed,  and 
the  more  abundant  and  more  succulent  foods  grown  in 
Holland  have  also  exercised  an  influence  on  the  abundant 
milk  flow  which  characterizes  Holstein  cows  and  the  rela- 
tively low  amount  of  butter  fat  found  in  the  same.  Would 
not  the  task  of  producing  a  Jersey  in  Holland  and  likewise 
a  Holstein  in  Jersey  have  been  difficult? 

But  food  may  also  influence  the  constituents  of  milk 
even  perceptibly  for  a  time  under  certain  conditions.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  if  a  cow  has  been  grown  under 
conditions  adverse  to  good  development,  and  if  she  has 
been  kept  upon  inferior  food,  and  low  in  nutrition  for  a 
considerable  time,  it  is  possible  in  such  an  instance  to  secure 
perceptible  increase  in  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the 
milk.  It  is  brought  about  probably  by  renovating  the  system 
of  the  cow,  through  the  more  or  less  prolonged  feeding  of 
nutritious  and  suitable  food.  Such  increase,  however,  is  not 
marked. 

Certain  foods  affect  the  flavor  of  milk  adversely,  even 
though  eaten  in  limited  quantity.  Such  are  leeks  (Allium 
tricoccum),  sometimes  found  in  wild  pasture,  penny  cress 
(Thlaspi  arvense),  found  sometimes  in  those  that  are  tame, 
and  the  leaves  of  certain  vegetables,  as  cabbage,  fed  in  a 
state  of  partial  decay.  Other  foods  give  the  milk  an  un- 
desirable odor  only  when  fed  in  too  large  quantities  and 
too  near  the  usual  milking  period.  Such  include  rape,  ru- 
tabaga and  turnip  tops  and  also  rutabagas  and  turnips,  con- 
centrated foods  also,  as  brewers'  grains  for  instance  that 
have  reached  the  borderland  of  putrefaction,  will  produce 
offensive  odors  in  milk. 

A  normal  amount  of  development  of  bone  in  domestic 
animals  can  only  be  secured  by  feeding  them  on  food  suffi- 
ciently supplied  with  ash  and  v  protein,  particularly  the 
former,  since  these  are  nutrients  required  in  building  bone. 
Where  these  are  insufficient  in  the  food,  the  development 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  ANIMALS  79 

of  bone  will  be  below  what  is  normal  and  likewise  relative 
strength  in  the  same. 

The  relation  between  strength  and  cleanness  of  bone  in 
horses  and  grasses  grown  on  soils  of  limestone  formation 
has  long  been  noticed.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  the 
relation  between  a  corn  diet  and  deficiency  of  bone  develop- 
ment both  in  quantity  and  strength,  in  growing  and  fatten- 
ing swine,  but  more  particularly  during  the  growing  period. 
It  has  been  noticed  that  when  a  brood  sow  is  fed  exclusively 
on  a  corn  diet  during  the  period  of  gestation,  the  pigs  are 
deficient  in  size  at  birth  and  have  small  bones.  The  corn 
does  not  furnish  the  dam  with  enough  of  the  elements  of 
bone  making  material. 

It  has  also  been  proved  by  experiment  that  swine  fed 
on  corn  alone  during  the  growing  period  have  bone  develop- 
ment inadequate  in  quantity  and  quality.  This  of  course 
is  adverse  to  large  and  robust  development,  since  a  small 
framework  of  bone  and  similar  muscular  development  are 
more  or  less  intimately  associated.  It  has  also  been  observed 
that  swine  reared  chiefly  on  corn  and  fattened  on  the  same 
go  down  on  their  limbs  much  sooner  than  those  fed  on 
foods  which  supply  an  ample  amount  of  bone  making 
material.  It  has  furthermore  been  observed  that  sheep 
largely  reared  on  alfalfa  and  red  clover  develop  large 
frames  covered  by  a  corresponding  amount  of  muscle. 

But  increase  in  bone  development  beyond  what  is 
normal  is  not  produced  by  feeding  foods  to  an  animal  pos- 
sessed of  more  ash  than  is  necessary  for  normal  develop- 
ment. In  other  words  an  animal  may  be  fed  bone  making 
materials  much  in  excess  of  its  needs,  and  yet  the  pro- 
duction of  bone  will  stop  at  that  point  of  development 
which  is  normal  for  the  breed  or  at  least  which  is  normal 
for  the  individual  as  determined  by  inheritance.  But  in- 
crease in  bone  development  may  be  attained  beyond  what  is 
normal  for  the  breed  by  feeding  food  relatively  rich  in.  the 
materials  for  making  bone,  aided  by  selection.  In  other 


8O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

words  the  normal  standard  of  the  bony  framework  may 
in  this  way  be  increased  to  a  certain  limit. 

It  is  also  possible  to  exercise  a  far-reaching  influence 
on  the  amount  of  bone  in  swine  and  other  animals,  where 
corn  is  fed  to  excess,  simply  by  selection,  as  may  be  observed 
by  the  marked  difference  in  the  amount  of  bone  possessed 
by  herds  of  swine  in  the  corn  belt,  and  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  food  fed  to  the  dam  during  pregnancy 
does  exert  a  material  influence  in  determining  the  possible 
development  of  bone  subsequently.  When  amply  supplied 
with  bone  making  materials  in  the  food,  it  cannot  be  other- 
wise than  that  the  whole  bony  framework  will  be  larger 
in  the  young  animals  at  birth  than  if  there  had  been  a 
deficiency  of  these,  and  that  in  consequence  larger  bone 
development  will  result  at  maturity  than  would  be  possible 
had  the  bony  framework  been  opposite  in  character.  This 
relation,  however,  is  probably  more  general  than  specific, 
as  animals  small  at  birth  do  sometimes  develop  into  large 
animals  at  maturity,  but  the  opposite  of  this  is  more  com- 
monly true. 

Development  and  waste  energy. — Under  some  condi- 
tions of  environment  and  management,  acting  independently 
or  in  conjunction,  there  is  an  undue  drain  upon  the  energies 
of  the  system  as:  (i)  When  searching  for  food;  (2)  in 
resisting  the  influences  of  exposure,  and  (3)  in  making 
up  for  the  loss  caused  by  disturbing  influences  from  what- 
soever source  these  may  come.  All  such  expenditure  of 
energy  will  result  in  loss  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which 
it  exists.  In  some  instances,  it  is  loss  of  energy  for  pro- 
ducing labor;  in  others,  it  means  retirded  increase  of  flesh 
or  actual  loss  of  the  same;  and  in  yet  rthers,  low  or  even 
reduced  production  in  milk  yields. 

Require  a  horse  that  is  laboring  to  gather  food  from 
pastures  in  the  one  instance  that  are  low  in  production  or 
from  rich  pastures  in  the  other  but  not  allowed  sufficient 
time  to  gather  such  food,  and  the  capacity  to  furnish  labor 
will  be  so  far  lessened.  Require  an  animal  to  gather  food 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  ANIMALS  8 1 

on  insufficient  pastures  and  its  development  will  be  pro- 
portionately hindered.  The  same  result  will  follow  should 
the  animal  be  able  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  food,  but 
at  an  expenditure  of  energy  which  does  not  admit  of  ample 
time  to  rest  sufficiently.  The  larger  the  animal  that  is  sub- 
jected to  such  conditions,  the  greater  will  be  the  relative 
loss,  owing  to  the  correspondingly  larger  expenditure  of 
energy  in  carrying  the  additional  weight  over  the  pastures. 
Beyond  certain  limits  such  requirement  would  result  in  an 
actual  loss  of  flesh,  even  during  the  growing  period.  The 
effect  upon  milk  production  would  be  precisely  similar. 

To  keep  animals  in  comfort,  the  heat  within  the  body 
must  be  maintained  up  to  a  certain  degree.  The  food  con- 
sumed is  the  source  of  bodily  heat.  A  certain  amount  of 
heat  is  given  off  continuously  through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 
Exposure  to  temperatures  below  what  is  normal  for  the 
animal,  increases  the  loss  of  bodily  heat  in  proportion  as  it 
is  incurred,  and  just  in  that  proportion  will  there  be  a  drain 
upon  the  food  consumed  to  furnish  such  heat.  This  will 
mean  that  just  to  that  extent  will  its  power  to  pro- 
duce be  diverted.  The  influence  on  decreased  milk 
production  will  be  even  greater  than  on  flesh  produc- 
tion, for  the  reason  first,  that  the  milk  producer  must 
also  be  possessed  of  a  certain  amount  of  flesh  which  must 
be  maintained  before  effective  milk  production  can  follow; 
second,  that  milk  producing  animals  are  usually  lower  in 
flesh  than  other  animals  and,  therefore,  are  so  much  less 
effectively  equipped  for  resisting  the  influences  of  undue 
exposure;  and  third,  the  entire  organization  of  the  milk 
producer  is  more  refined  and,  therefore,  so  far  more  delicate 
than  that  of  the  male  animal  and  consequently  in  so  far 
weaker  is  the  resisting  power  referred  to.  The  effect  of 
such  exposure  will  be  similar  in  kind  with  reference  to  labor, 
though  it  may  be  less  in  degree. 

The  accompaniments  of  low  temperatures  as  wind,  rain, 
snow  and  sleet,  are  an  additional  drain  on  bodily  heat  when 
they  are  present,  and  under  some  conditions  severely  so. 


82  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Cold  rain  draws  most  severely  on  the  bodily  heat  of  ex- 
posed swine,  because  of  the  light  hair  covering  and  next 
in  degree  probably  upon  that  of  opened  wooled  sheep,  since 
the  fleece  to  some  extent  retains  for  a  time  a  portion  of  the 
water  within  it.  The  influence  upon  cattle  is  still  less,  be- 
cause of  the  fine  character  of  the  hair  covering  and  the 
thicker  hide,  and  on  those  breeds  with  a  long  covering  of 
hair  and  also  a  dense  furring  underneath,  as  in  the  Gallo- 
way, it  is  still  less.  In  horses  and  mules  it  is  least  probably 
among  domestic  quadrupeds  in  the  country,  owing  to  the 
greater  natural  activity  of  the  horse  and  mule. 

Cold  wind  acts  powerfully  in  removing  bodily  heat. 
Sheep,  for  instance,  may  maintain  a  fine  condition  of  thrift 
in  one  instance  where  protected  from  cold  winds  in  winter, 
and  in  another  instance  completely  fail  to  do  so  when  much 
exposed  to  cold  winds,  and  the  same  is  true  of  other  domes- 
tic animals.  This  difference  will  occur  even  though  the 
temperatures  judged  by  the  thermometer  should  be  practi- 
cally the  same.  The  drain  on  bodily  heat  from  the  action 
of  snow  and  sleet  is  most  readily  seen  in  the  quickness  with 
which  young  lambs  and  pigs  succumb  when  exposed  to  it, 
and  in  the  sudden  and  large  reduction  in  milk  yields  of  ani- 
mals so  exposed.  The  influence  of  the  extent  of  the  drain 
upon  bodily  heat  when  these  influences  act  in  conjunction, 
is  probably  greatest  in  blizzards,  such  as  occur  occasionally 
on  western  ranges,  when  even  strong  animals  so  exposed  not 
infrequently  perish. 

Tie  different  classes  of  animals  as  such,  differ  consid- 
eraoiy  in  the  degree  of.  their  resisting  power  to  the  influences 
of  low  temperatures,  owing  more  to  the  differences  of  the 
coat  than  to  any  other  single  influence.  To  temperatures 
low  and  without  wind,  sheep  have  probably  the  greatest 
resisting  power  and  swine  the  least.  Some  breeds  of  cattle 
as  such  have  greater  resisting  power  than  others,  as  for  in- 
stance, the  West  Highland  compared  with  the  Jersey  or 
Guernsey.  The  same  is  practically  true  of  breeds  of  sheep, 
owing  to  a  difference  in  the  density  of  the  wool  and  to  its 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 

OF   ANIMALS  83 

greater  adherence  at  the  outer  ends  of  the  Wool  fibres,  be- 
cause of  the  abundance  of  the  yolk,  or  soil  in  the  wool  in 
conjunction  with  external  influences  such  as  dust.  This 
more  than  anything  else  has  given  Merino  sheep  a  foremost 
place  in  hardihood  among  the  pure  breeds  of  sheep,  now 
found  in  America. 

While  natural  hardihood  in  animals  is,  under  some 
conditions,  an  exceedingly  valuable  characteristic,  under 
other  conditions  it  is  considerably  less  valuable  relatively. 
Range  conditions,  where  climate  is  austere,  illustrate  the 
former,  and  arable  farms,  where  domestic  animals  may  be 
protected  from  all  undue  exposure,  the  latter.  How  far 
natural  hardihood  is  to  be  sought  must  be  left  to  the  judg- 
ment to  determine.  If  the  highest  possible  hardihood  were 
possible  of  attainment  without  sacrificing  producing  power, 
then  it  should  be  sought,  but  observation  and  experience 
have  shown  that  such  is  "not  the  case.  If  on  the  other  hand 
the  highest  possible  production  can  be  secured  from  breeding 
animals  without  inducing  undue  delicacy,  then  this  should 
be  sought.  But,  similarly,  it  has  been  shown  that  such  is 
not  the  case.  It  may,  therefore,  be  wise  to  sacrifice  some- 
thing of  hardihood  for  more  production  and  vice  versa. 
The  breeder  of  domestic  animals  on  the  farm  should  guard 
carefully  against  seeking  production  to  the  extent  of  im- 
pairing constitutional  vigor,  as  when  dairy  cows  are  too 
constantly  housed  in  winter,  brood  sows  are  bred  too  young 
and  too  continuously,  and  males  are  used  in  service  too 
young  and  excessively. 

The  influence  of  food  on  the  temperature  of  the  body  is 
marked,  hence  this  fact  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  when 
regulating  the  temperature  of  buildings.  Foods  carbonace- 
ous in  character  produce  more  heat  than  those  that  are 
nitrogenous.  The  amount  of  flesh  carried  at  the  time  exerts 
an  influence.  The  temperature  of  a  stable,  therefore,  that 
would  be  quite  suitable  for  a  dairy  cow  in  a  somewhat  low 
condition  of  flesh,  because  producing  heavily  would  not  be 
the  same  as  for  a  steer  laden  with  fat.  So  marked  is  the 


84  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

difference,  that  while  the  latter  may  lie  down  in  comfort  in 
an  open  shed,  the  former  would  shiver  subjected  to  like  con- 
ditions. 

Development  and  decadence. — In  the  life  of  all  animals 
there  is  a  time  when  possible  production  reaches  a  max- 
imum, after  which  it  gradually  decreases.  That  time  is  when 
they  have  reached  the  meridian  of  bodily  vigor  and  capacity 
to  produce,  which  does  not  always  mean  that  period  when 
bodily  growth  ceases,  as  is  shown  below.  Decadence  more 
or  less  gradual  at  once  begins,  howsoever  perfect  the  man- 
agement may' be.  The  moment  that  such  decadence  begins, 
the  profitableness  of  the  animal  begins  to  grow  less,  as  pro- 
duction grows  less  with  decrease  in  the  food  of  maintenance. 

The  immediate  cause  of  such  decadence  is  the  changed 
and  continuous  changing  character  of  the  nutrition.  Waste 
of  tissue  is  more  than  the  assimilative  powers  can  repair 
and  expended  energy  is  more  than  the  forces  that  generate 
energy  make  good.  Later,  the  teeth  begin  to  fail  and  when 
they  do,  digestion  suffers  proportionately,  first  from  inability 
to  take  enough  food,  and  second  from  inability  to  properly 
masticate  what  is  eaten. 

The  age  at  which  such  decadence  begins  varies  with 
breeds.  Usually  the  longer  the  time  occupied  in  maturing, 
the  more  deferred  is  the  beginning  of  decadence.  It  is  also  in- 
fluenced by  excessive  performance  and  insufficient  nutrition. 
The  over-worked  horse,  the  cow  whose  digestive  machinery 
has  been  driven  at  a  high  speed  through  heavy  grain  feeding 
and  long  continued,  and  the  brood  sow  kept  producing 
twice  in  the  year,  will  all  begin  to  decline  at  an  earlier  age 
than  if  the  system  in  each  instance  had  not  been  thus  over- 
taxed. The  meridian  of  vigor  is  reached  when  the  animal 
has  reached  fullest  maturity.  This  in  one  sense  is  reached 
when  further  increase  in  weight  ceases,  but  in  another  sense 
it  is  not  until  the  limit  is  reached  of  greatest  possible  pro- 
ducton.  The  latter  comes  later  than  the  former.  The  farm 
horse  may  cease  to  increase  in  weight  after  the  fourth  year, 
and  the  same  may  be  true  of  the  dairy  cow,  and  yet  the  labor 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   ANIMALS  85 

of  the  former  may  be  and  usually  is  worth  more  two  or  three 
years  subsequently,  and  the  same  is  true  of  milk  production 
in  the  latter.  With  the  former,  use  has  hardened  the  mus-. 
cles  so  that  they  can  endure  more  than  when  maturity  was 
attained,  and  habit  in  work  has  increased  capacity  for  work. 
With  the  latter,  habit  has  increased  capacity  for  milk  giving 
beyond  what  would  have  been  possible  when  increase  in 
bodily  development  ceased. 

The  period  of  highest  usefulness,  therefore,  viewed 
from  the  standpoint  of  production,  including  the  results 
from  breeding,  covers  a  period  of  years  beginning  with 
maturity.  With  working  horses  this  period  may  be  said 
in  a  general  way  to  extend  from  the  age  of  four  to  ten 
years.  With  dairy  cows  it  ranges  from  about  the  age  of 
three  to  eight  years.  With  sheep,  it  extends  from  say  two 
to  six  years  of  age,  and  with  brood  sows  from  say  one 
to  five  years.  This  does  not  mean  that  animals  should  not 
be  retained  beyond  the  ages  named,  but  that  the  most  profit- 
able production  is  likely  to  occur  between  the  ages  named. 
It  will  usually  be  profitable  to  keep  good  producing  animals 
longer  than  the  period  of  highest  production,  especially 
when  they  are  reared  on  the  farm,  as  an  offset  to  the  cost 
of  rearing  up  to  the  time  when  production  began.  It  will 
pay  to  keep  some  animals  longer  than  others,  because  of 
their  relatively  higher  producing  power. 

Much  has  been  written,  but  not  too  much,  as  to  the 
unwisdom  of  breeding  from  animals  at  too  early  an  age. 
It  is  quite  as  important,  nevertheless,  that  they  shall  not 
be  bred  from  at  too  advanced  an  age,  for  physical  powers 
considerably  advanced  in  the  decadent  stage  can  no  more 
be  expected  to  produce  animals  of  highest  excellence  than 
physical  powers  not  yet  perfected.  While  it  is  proper  and 
commendable  to  retain  for  breeding,  animals  of  marked  pre- 
potency and  high  excellence  as  breeders  for  a  longer  period 
than  those  of  average  merit  as  breeders,  a  time  comes  when 


86  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

even  they  should  not  be  retained  for  breeding.  The  com- 
mon saying  that  such  animals  should  be  retained  for  breed- 
ing as  long  as  they  are  capable  of  breeding,  is  not  quite  true. 
Can  any  instances  be  cited  in  which  animals  that  became  not- 
ed performers  were  forgotten  when. decadence  from  age  had 
become  considerably  advanced  ?  The  tearing  of  what  has 
been  said  upon  profitable  feeding  will  be  at  once  apparent. 

Development  and  inferiority. — Howsoever  excellent 
the  management  of  a  stud,  herd  or  flock  may  be,  and  how- 
soever skillful  the  breeding,  some  animals  will  be  born  into 
it  with  inferior  development  and  also  with  capacity  for 
development  below  the  average  of  the  breed.  In  some  in- 
stances this  happens  in  the  case  of  animals  from  the  same 
sire  and  dam  which  have  previously  produced  specimens  of 
great  excellence.  This  is  the  outcome  of  the  operation  of 
that  second  law  of  breeding  known  as  the  law  of  variation. 

All  the  reasons  for  such  contrasts  may  never  be  fully 
known,  but  doubtless  they  are  prenatal.  They  may  be 
influenced  by  the  condition  of  the  sire  or  dam,  or  both,  at 
the  time  of  mating,  with  reference  to  condition  as  to  flesh, 
the  food  which  has  produced  it,  and  the  degree  of  vigor 
possessed.  They  may  also  be  influenced  by  the  food  given 
to  the  dam  during  pregnancy  as  to  quantity  and  quality, 
by  the  exercise  given  or  withheld,  and  by  the  performance 
required  in  furnishing  labor  or  milk.  That  other  influences 
are  operative,  however,  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
marked  variations  occur  in  the  progeny  of  the  same  parents 
when  all  the  conditions  are  as  uniform  as  the  breeder  can 
make  them.  The  assertion  is  safe,  notwithstanding,  that 
the  number  of  the  instances  in  which  such  inferior  produc- 
tion appears  is  few  relatively  in  approximate  proportion  as 
the  breeding  and  management  are  correct. 

The  true  destiny  of  such  animals  is  the  block  and  at  an 
early  age.  If  retained  or  sold  for  breeding,  they  are  pretty 
certain  to  aid  in  transmitting  inferiority.  If  grown  for  meat 
until  maturity,  the  production  will  be  less  profitable  than 
from  animals  of  normal  or  superior  excellence.  But  decision 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   ANIMALS  87 

with  reference  to  their  disposal  should  not  be  reached  too 
soon,  as  animals  of  but  little  promise  at  birth  change  quickly 
for  the  better  in  some  instances  to  a  remarkable  degree. 

In  no  other  way  can  the  standard  of  the  herd  be 
brought  up  to  a  high  level,  than  by  removing  from  it  those 
inferior  specimens  when  they  appear.  The  breeders  of 
pure-breds  hesitate  sometimes  to  send  such  specimens  to  the 
shambles,  since  they  can  ordinarily  sell  them  above  meat 
price,  because  of  the  pedigree  which  they  possess.  To  sell 
them  for  such  a  use,  however,  is  simply  to  take  advantage  of 
the  ignorance  of  the  purchaser. 

Development  in  equilibrium. — Equilibrium  in  develop- 
ment may  be  denned  as  steady,  even  and  robust  growth, 
from  birth  to  maturity,  with  a  view  to  accomplish  in  the 
highest  degree  the  end  for  which  the  animal  is  reared.  At 
no  time  is  it  excessive,  and  on  the  other  hand  at  no  time 
is  it  wanting.  To  accomplish  the  first  calls  for  the  exercise 
of  sound  judgment.  To  prevent  the  second  demands  the 
most  constant  watchfulness  as  well  as  forethought.  Ani- 
mals thus  reared  will  best  fulfill  the  end  for  which  they 
have  been  reared,  and  will  longest  remain  productive  under 
continued  good  management. 

This  does  not  mean  that  animals  should  not  be  grown 
for  a  single  and  specific  purpose,  but  it  does  mean  that  in 
growing  them,  the  effort  to  accomplish  that  purpose  shall 
not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  reduce  vigor  in  the  animal 
beyond  what  is  necessary  to  accomplish  that  end  in  the 
highest  degree.  It  is  easily  possible  to  secure  form  for 
free  and  easy  action  in  the  running  horse  so  extreme  that 
his  staying  powers  will  be  reduced.  Dairy  form  in  the  milk 
pioducer  may  become  so  extreme  that  stamina  is  so  reduced 
that  it  hinders  high  performance,  and  the  meat  making 
form  in  the  cow  may  be  pushed  to  the  extent  of  lowering 
breeding  qualities.  These  results  are  the  outcome  of  the 
law  of  correlation  which  makes  increase  in  a  marked  de- 
gree in  one  direction  to  be  followed  by  suppression  in  an- 
other. The  more  extreme  the  increase,  the  more  marked 


88  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

thU?  depression.  The  individual  who  seeks  extreme  increase 
in  one  direction  cannot  afford  to  ignore  the  ever-present 
influence  of  this  law  or  his  efforts  will  ultimately  end  in 
failure. 

The  most  profitable  animal  is  the  one  that  produces 
best  for  the  longest  period  in  proportion  to  the  food  fed, 
and  that  has  the  power  of  transmitting  like  production  to 
the  progeny.  Such  a  combination  of  qualities  is  never  found 
in  the  animal  that  has  not  been  developed  in  equilibrium. 
Grow  a  meat-making  animal  for  showing  at  an  early  age 
and  its  breeding  powers  are  lowered.  Require  excessive 
service  in  a  young  male  and  his  possible  development  is 
lowered.  Feed  a  meat-making  animal  a  low  diet  in  early  life 
and  its  meat-making  powers  are  lowered. 

Equilibrium  in  development  has  a  far  higher  signifi- 
cance in  relation  to  animals  grown  for  breeding  and  pro- 
duction that  will  cover  a  term  of  years,  than  when  grown 
simply  for  the  block.  With  the  latter,  the  feeding  term 
is  short,  with  the  former  it  covers  years.  No  great  loss 
may  occur  from  over-developing  a  calf  at  the  age  of  one 
year,  but  it  would  be  entirely  different  if  a  breeding  ani- 
mal were  so  over-developed  at  that  age,  that  its  prospective 
usefulness  was  permanently  lowered. 

Equilibrium  in  development  is  the  highest  attainment 
of  the  breeder's  art.  The  man  in  whose  herd  are  a  score 
of  really  good  animals  and  no  culls,  stands  on  a  higher 
plane. than  the  man  who  has  some  prize  winners  and  a 
number  of  only  ordinary  animals  in  the  same.  The  man 
whose  animals  are  all  good  performers  has  accomplished 
more  than  the  man  who  has  some  great  performers  and 
some  inferior,  notwithstanding  that  the  latter  may  shine 
before  the  public  while  the  former  may  be  unknown  to  the 
same. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PRINCIPLES  THAT  GOVERN  HABIT  IN  DIGES- 
TION AND  ASSIMILATION. 

Digestion  means  the  preparing  of  foods  for  being  re- 
sorbed  into  the  system.  Assimilation  is  the  process  of  re- 
sorbing  them  when  thus  prepared.  The  two  processes 
though  closely  related  are  distinct  and  yet  both  are  fre- 
quently included  in  the  term  digestion.  Certain  principles 
govern  both  processes  which  have  the  strength  of  law.  Con- 
sequently they  cannot  be  ignored  by  the  stockman  without 
paying  a  proportionate  penalty.  In  its  essence,  habit  in 
digestion  and  assimilation  is  the  outcome  of  repetition  con- 
tinued long  in  one  direction  in  a  certain  line.  When  the 
repetition  continues  through  a  number  of  generations,  it 
becomes  a  habit  of  the  system  so  fixed  that  it  is  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  relation  of  habit  to 
these  is  evidenced:  (i)  In  the  fact  of  its  existence;  (2) 
in  the  influences  which  flow  from  it;  (3)  in  the  modifica- 
tions through  food,  and  treatment  of  which  it  is  susceptible, 
and  (4)  in  the  greater  ease  or  difficulty  found  in  modifying 
digestive  and  assimilative  habits  that  have  a  bias  in  one  or 
more  directions. 

Habit,  digestion  and  assimilation. — That  habit  exer- 
cises a  powerful  influence  on  digestion  and  food  assimilation 
is  abundantly  evident.  It  is  witnessed  in  the  very  different 
results  that  come  from  feeding  substantially  the  same  foods 
to  animals  of  the  same  species  and  also  to  animals  of  differ- 
ent species.  Take,  for  instance,  good  hay  and  oats  and 
feed  them  to  beef  and  dairy  cows,  to  mutton  and  wool-pro- 
ducing sheep,  and  to  draft  and  standard-bred  horses.  Note 
the  difference  in  the  product.  The  meat-making  animals  in 
milk  will  turn  the  larger  share  of  the  food  fed  into  muscle 


9O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

and  fatty  tissue,  while  the  dairy  breeds  will  turn  the  major 
porRbn  into  milk.  The  mutton  breeds  of  sheep  will  turn 
the  larger  portion  of  the  food  into  meat,  but  it  is  meat 
much  unlike  that  made  by  beef  cattle  from  the  same  feed. 
The  wool  breeds  of  sheep  will  turn  a  much  larger  percentage 
of  the  food  into  wool  production  and  it  will  differ  in 
many  respects  from  the  wool  of  other  breeds  of  sheep. 
The  same  food  fed  to  draft  horses  will  be  used  largely  in 
making  or  sustaining  strong  bone  and  muscle,  and  if  fed  to 
standard-bred  horses  in  making  or  sustaining  finer  bone 
of  high  quality,  and  in  generating  energy  or  staying  power. 
Thus  it  is  that  results  so  different,  are  produced  from  the 
same  foods  in  that  dark  laboratory  of  the  digestive  and 
assimilative  organs.  The  same  is  true  of  the  lard  and 
bacon  types  of  swine.  Both  may  be  fed  on  the  same  kinds 
of  food  for  a  time  at  least,  and  the  character  of  the  pork 
will  be  very  different  indeed. 

It  is  very  surprising  that  materials  the  same  in  kind 
should  be  thus  transformed  into  products  so  different.  The 
laboratory  in  which  the  transformation  takes  place  is  so 
filled  with  mystery  that  the  search  light  of  science  has  not 
been  able  to  look  into  it  very  far.  The  diverse  results  from 
feeding  foods  essentially  the  same  in  kind  have  a  parallel 
more  or  less  close  in  the  different  character  of  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  especially  those  of  the  same  species  which 
grow  side  by  side  in  the  same  soil. 

But  it  must  not  be  concluded  that  the  strength  of 
those  habits  is  such  that  many  of  them  at  least  may  not  be 
greatly  modified.  Nor  would  it  be  correct  to  conclude 
that  food  alone  would  not  be  able  to  make  marked  change 
if  given  time  enough.  In  this  way  the  bacon  hog  could  be 
transformed  into  one  of  the  lard  type  and  vice  versa 
through  the  agency  of  food  alone.  But  changes  thus 
brought  about  by  natural  causes  may  be  hastened  or  re- 
tarded by  selection  and  in  other  ways. 


DIGESTION    AND    ASSIMILATION  9! 

Influence  of  habit  on  digestion. — The  influence  of 
habit  on  the  digestion  of  food,  its  assimilation  and  the  de- 
position of  its  nutrients  finds  illustration :  ( I )  In  the 
character  of  the  flesh  produced  by  animals  of  the  various 
breeds  devoted  to  the  making  of  meat;  (2)  in  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  the  milk  yield;  (3)  in  the  degree  to 
which  muscle  and  energy  respectively  are  produced  in 
horses;  and  (4)  in  the  degree  to  which  flesh  and  wool  re- 
spectively are  produced  in  sheep.  The  difference  in  the 
extent  to  which  these  characteristics  are  held  in  breeds  is 
marked  and  what  is  more  surprising  in  individuals  of  the 
same  breed.  The  beef  breeds  of  cattle  while  being  fattened 
intermix  fat  and  lean  in  a  considerable  degree.  They  do 
not  possess  this  quality  in  equal  degree,  nor  do  the  animals 
of  the  same  breed  possess  it  equal  in  degree.  But  they  do 
possess  it  in  sufficient  degree  to  furnish  the  breeder  a 
reasonably  sure  guide  when  determining  the  breed  that 
he  shall  grow  to  furnish  meat  of  a  specific  character.  While 
all  meat-making  breeds  of  cattle  have  this  characteristic, 
it  would  seem  to  be  more  marked  in  the  Aberdeen-Angus 
breed  than  in  some  other  meat-making  breeds.  Such  de- 
position of  fat  and  lean  adds  to  the  juiciness  and  tenderness 
of  meat.  The  dairy  breeds  on  the  other  hand  are  much 
prone  to  deposit  the  fat  internally  and  otherwise  less  inter- 
mixed than  in  the  beef  breeds.  Somewhat  akin  to  this  in 
principle  but  not  exactly  in  kind,  is  the  depositon  of  fat 
and  lean  in  the  bacon  and  other  portions  of  the  carcass  in 
the  lard  and  bacon  types  of  swine.  The  differences  in  the 
texture  of  meat  are  also  considerable,  more  especially  when 
there  is  much  difference  in  the  size  of  the  respective  breeds 
which  furnish  the  meat.  The  muscle  in  large  breeds  is  more 
coarse  in  texture  than  in  those  that  are  small. 

The  difference  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  milk 
produced  by  the  average  of  the  respective  breeds  is  very 
marked.  The  Channel  island  breeds  are  proverbial  for  the 
richness  01  their  milk,  the  Holland  breeds  for  the  quantity 
produced,  and  it  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  milking 


92  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Shorthorns  and  Ayrshires  are  characterized  by  producing 
milk  in  a  sort  of  equilibrium  in  regard  to  quantity  and 
quality. 

Equally  marked  is  the  difference  in  the  degree  of  mus- 
cle produced  in  the  different  breeds  of  horses  and  in  the 
difference  in  the  degree  of  energy  generated  as  manifested 
in  a  difference  in  speed  and  staying  power.  The  only  limit 
to  the  possible  development  of  muscle  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  generation  of  energy  on  the  other  is  that  set  by  normal 
inheritance.  It  would  not  be  correct  to  say  that  this  limit 
may  not  be  changed,  but  it  cannot  be  changed  suddenly. 

That  one  breed  of  sheep  should  possess  wool  on  an 
average  10  inches  long  and  that  another  breed  should  pos- 
sess the  same  but  3  inches  long,  though  similarly  fed,  is 
surprising.  Nor  is  it  any  less  surprising  that  the  sheep 
with  the  short  wool,  as  for  instance  the  American  Merino, 
should  center  the  energies  of  digestion  on  the  production 
of  wool,  whereas  the  sheep  with  the  long  wool,  as,  for 
instance  Lincoln,  centers  its  energies  rather  on  the  produc- 
tion of  mutton. 

It  is  not  meant  that  these  various  habits  are  not 
influenced  to  some  extent  or  at  least  some  of  them  and 
very  directly  by  the  character  of  the  food  fed.  It  would 
be  easy  to  feed  freely  to  a  draft  horse  food,  as  corn  for 
instance,  that  would  aid  him  in  winning  at  a  fair,  whereas, 
if  the  same  food  were  fed  equally  to  a  standard-bred  it 
would  cause  him  to  lose  in  a  speed  contest.  Likewise,  food 
that  is  best  for  beef  production  is  not  that  which  is  best  for 
milk  producion.  Nor  is  it  meant  that  these  habits  in  diges- 
tion may  not  be  so  changed  in  time  as  to  lose  their  dis- 
tinctive character,  but  the  fact  is  emphasized  that  these 
changes  can  only  be  effected  gradually,  hence  the  breeder 
when  commencing  his  work  should  give  due  recognition  to 
the  influence  which  established  habit  in  the  animals  which 
he  breeds  is  likely  to  exert  on  his  work. 

Modifications  of  habit  in  digestion. — That  habit  in 
digestion  may  .be  so  modified  as  to  produce  certain  results 


DIGESTION    AND    ASSIMILATION  93 

is  sustained  by  the  entire  history  of  evolution  in  live  stock. 
At  one  time  the  Aberdeen  poll  was  not  the  peerless  beef 
producer  that  it  is  today.  There  are  also  good  reasons 
for  believing  that  centuries  ago  the  Channel  island  breeds 
gave  milk  less  rich  than  the  average  of  the  milk  obtained 
from  there  now.  Such  modification  finds  further  illustration 
in  the  outcome  from  the  way  in  which  the  heifer  is  grown 
intended  for  the  dairy,  in  the  modifications  made  by  corn 
feeding  in  the  bacon  types  of  swine  and  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  milking  qualities  of  the  beef  types  of  cattle. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  when  the  female  of  a  dairy 
breed  has  been  fed  foods  from  calfhood  onward  that  are 
rich  in  elements  of  fat  and  muscle  production,  the  tendency 
in  the  system  to  produce  flesh  and  fat  is  strengthened  to  a 
degree  that  appreciably  lessens  the  value  of  the  same  as  a 
producer  of  dairy  products.  Because  of  this,  the  most  suc- 
cessful growers  of  dairy  stock  are  careful  to  rear  females 
intended  for  the  dairy  on  foods  that  make  growth  of  frame 
and  muscle  rather  than  fatty  tissue.  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  tendency  in  food  appropriation  in  the  system  is 
brought  about  by  the  influence  of  food  only. 

The  same  is  true  of  modification  in  the  character  of 
bacon  grown  almost  entirely  on  corn.  In  one  generation 
it  will  so  modify  the  bacon  produced  that  it  will  not  be 
assigned  first  place  in  the  market,  although  it  would  have 
been  assigned  first  rank  had  it  been  properly  grown.  Let 
such  feeding  be  continued  for  a  few  generations  and  the 
bacon  form  will  be  greatly  modified.  It  will  bear  a  much 
closer  resemblance  to  the  form  of  the  lard  breeds. 

The  milk  production  of  any  class  of  beef  cattle  may 
also  be  modified  through  food  fed  so  as  to  considerably 
increase  the  milk  flow.  It  is  a  fact  the  beef  breeds  are  not 
equal  in  milk  production,  though  fed  similarly,  a  result 
owing  doubtless  in  part  to  inheritance,  and  in  part  to  nutri- 
ents contained  in  the  foods  which  furnished  the  major 


94  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

portion  of  their  diet.  Modifications  in  this  direction,  how- 
ever, are  quite  slow  unless  aided  by  selection  and  facilitated 
by  the  influence  of  hand  milking. 

Habit  in  digestion  also  modifies  the  breeding  season. 
Animals  well  and  suitably  fed,  breed  more  freely  than  those 
not  fed  so  well.  Through  the  influence  of  food  alone,  the 
breeding  season  may  be  greatly  modified  if  not  indeed 
entirely  changed.  But  such  modification  is  greatly  influ- 
enced by  selection  as  is  the  case  with  all  modification.  The 
domestic  cow  as  now  kept  breeds  at  all  seasons.  Her 
sister  running  wild  on  the  plains  breeds  only  when  the 
spring  grasses  are  suitable  and  abundant.  They  then  pro- 
vide ample  food  to  enable  her  to  nourish  her  young.  The 
relation,  therefore,  between  food  and  management  and  mod- 
ification of  habit  in  digestion  is  abundantly  clear. 

Modifications  not  equally  easy. — The  modifications  in 
habit  in  digestion  which  are  possible  are  by  no  means  equally 
easy.  To  illustrate :  It  does  not  take  long  to  transform  the 
wool  growing  sheep  into  one  that  produces  mutton  that 
may  be  considered  high  class.  But  it  takes  a  long  time  to 
make  equally  pronounced  changes  in  the  character  of  wool, 
and  marked  modification  in  the  constituents  of  milk  call  for 
long  generations,  if  not  indeed  centuries,  to  make  them  in 
a  marked  degree. 

Modifications  in  meat  production  may  be  quickly  made. 
The  author  purchased  ewes  from  the  range  very  common 
in  character.  They  were  mated  with  a  high-class  South- 
down ram.  The  female  progeny  of  the  next  generation  and 
also  of  the  next  were  similarly  mated.  The  lambs  of  the 
third  generation  were  then  exhibited  at  the  International 
Fat  Stock  show  at  Chicago  in  1901  and  won  first  honors, 
both  alive  and  dead,  competing  against  the  world.  The 
range  females  originally  purchased  were  possessed  of  very 
indifferent  mutton  form  and  they  were  of  diverse  blood 
elements,  Merino  characteristics  being  in  the  ascendant. 

Modification  in  the  character  ol  wool  is  made  much 
more  slowly,  notwithstanding  that  considerable  modification 


DIGESTION    AND    ASSIMILATION  95 

is  possible  with  each  succeeding  generation.  It  would  seem 
correct  to  say  that  modification  in  the  length  of  staple  in 
wool  is  much  more  quickly  made  than  modification  in  the 
fineness  of  the  same.  Beginning  with  sheep  producing 
coarse  wool,  it  would  probably  require  more  than  a  score 
of  generations  of  careful  breeding  and  selection  to  produce 
wool  as  fine  in  fibre  as  that  of  high  class  Merino  wool, 
whereas  in  less  than  half  a  dozen  generations  the  form  of 
distinctively  wool  bearing  sheep  can  be  transformed  into 
high-class  mutton  form. 

That  modification  in  the  essential  elements  of  milk  is 
a  work  that  is  slow  and  tedious,  is  sustained  by  many  exper- 
iments conducted  to  throw  light  on  this  question.  It  is  so 
slow  and  so  tedious  that  it  seems  as  though  centuries  would 
be  required  to  effect  marked  change  through  food  alone.  Of 
course  careful  and  rigid  selections  would  facilitate 
the  process.  Contrary  to  the  almost  universally  prevailing 
belief,  the  food  fed  does  not  influence  materially  the  per 
cent  of  the  fat  in  milk.  A  cow  which  furnishes  milk  low  in 
the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  will  continue  to  furnish  milk 
essentially  of  the  same  character,  though  fed  food  ever  so 
rich  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  quantity  of  the  milk 
furnished  will  of  course  be  increased,  and  along  with  such 
increase  will  come  increase  in  the  amount  of  butter  fat  pro- 
duced, but  only,  or  at  least  mainly,  because  there  has  been 
increase  in  the  quantity  of  the  milk  produced.  To  increase 
the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  milk  would  require  the  most 
persistent  selection  through  long  years  of  careful  breeding. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
PRINCIPLES  THAT  RELATE  TO  RESTFULNESS. 

When  animals  are  not  kept  perfectly  at  rest  there  is 
waste  in  the  food  fed  to  them  proportioned  to  the  degree 
of  the  disturbing  influence,  from  whatsoever  source  it  may 
arise  or  of  whatsoever  character  it  may  be.  It  is 
seen  in  less  development  in  growing  animals  than 
would  otherwise  have  resulted,  in  reduced  milk  flow  in 
the  case  of  milk  giving  animals,  in  diminished  increase 
in  animals  that  are  being  fattened,  and  in  reduced  ca- 
pacity for  labor  in  animals  kept  for  such  a  use.  This 
suppression  or  withholding  as  it  were,  or  reduction  of  ca- 
pacity in  performance,  means  in  every  instance  that  more 
food  will  be  utilized  in  attaining  a  given  end  than  would 
otherwise  be  necessary,  since  it  adds  just  so  much  to  the 
food  of  maintenance  that  would  otherwise  be  required. 
Since  domestic  animals  have  not  the  power  to  proclaim 
their  wrongs  in  speech,  nature  has  thus  furnished  them 
with  this  mute  way  of  compelling  attention  that  might  not 
otherwise  be  given. 

Among  the  many  ways  in  which  these  disturbing  in- 
fluences manifest  themselves  are  the  following:  (i)  Dis- 
comfort arising  from  inclement  weather  or  from  protection 
that  is  excessive;  (2)  unrest,  caused  by  insufficient  or  exces- 
sive feeding  or  by  an  unsuitable  bed  on  which  to  lie; 
(3)  deprivation  resulting  from  irregularity  in  feeding 
or  working;  (4)  suffering,  caused  by  insufficient  or 
irregular  water  supplies;  (5)  irritation,  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence of  insect  life  in  various  forms;  (6)  injury  resulting 
from  labor  violent,  excessive,  unduly  prolonged,  or  per- 
formed under  adverse  conditions;  (7)  harmful  results 
from  injury  inflicted  by  vicious  animals  in  the  herd  or 


RESTFULNESS    IN    ANIMALS  97 

flock,  or  by  those  of  some  other  species,  and  (8)  unrest 
growing  out  of  sexual  desire.  All  of  these  have  the  strength 
of  law.  No  one  of  them  can  be  present  without  exacting 
its  proportionate  penalty. 

Unrest  and  undue  exposure. — The  injury  resulting 
from  undue  exposure  has  already  been  discussed  with  some 
degree  of  fulness  (see  page  97),  but  not  that  arising  from 
excessive  protection.  Protection  is  excessive  when  it  pro- 
duces undue  delicacy,  permanently  lowers  stamina  or  les- 
sens production.  Delicacy  is  to  some  extent  a  question 
of  degree,  and  varies  much  with  animals  of  the  same  species. 
An  animal  becomes  unduly  delicate  when  it  is  no  longer 
able  to  fulfill  the  end  for  which  it  is  kept  without  excessive 
care  on  the  part  of  the  owner.  A  steer  is  too  delicate  for 
range  conditions  if  he  cannot  endure  without  hazard  the 
conditions  to  which  all  the  animals  of  the  herd  are  subjected. 
A  dairy  cow  is  too  delicate  when  she  cannot  successfully 
endure  any  reasonable  exposure  required  of  the  average 
of  the  herd.  Such  delicacy  may  arise  from  various  causes, 
but  more  frequently  from  close  housing  in  stables  that  are 
too  warm  than  from  any  other  cause. 

Protection  that  lowers  stamina  as  it  were  by  insensible 
degrees  is  excessive,  even  though  it  should  not  reach  that 
point  which  produces  delicacy  that  is  apparent.  The  cow  is 
overprotected  that  is  kept  standing  in  the  stable  all  winter 
without  the  opportunity  for  exercise,  even  though  the  con- 
ditions for  ventilation  should  be  perfect.  The  ewe  is  over- 
protected  when  kept  even  a  portion  of  the  time  in  a  shed  in 
which  the  heat  of  the  body  becomes  excessive  under  the 
fleece  which  she  carries.  The  colt  is  overprotected  when  its 
environment  is  such  that  it  is  not  encouraged  to  take  all  the 
exercise  it  ought  to  have  in  the  open  air  to  produce  high 
development  in  frame,  muscle,  wind  and  limb.  The  loss 
of  stamina  from  such  protection  may  be  so  gradual  that 
it  can  only  be  certainly  measured  by  comparing  one  gener- 
ation with  the  previous,  and  yet  it  may  be  going  on  all  the 
while.  Overprotection  combined  with  unwise  protection 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


is  doubtless  one  of  the  leading  factors  in  the  delicacy  that 
characterizes  to  some  extent  the  Jerseys  and  some  families 
of  Shorthorns  and  Aberdeen  Polls,  in  the  marked  tendency 
which  they  have  shown  to  fall  an  easy  prey  to  tuberculous 
diseases  and  also  in  other  ways. 

Increased  delicacy  and  lowered  stamina  will  assuredly 
be  followed  by  lower  average  production,  and  the  degree  of 
the  decrease,  other  things  being  equal,  will  be  proportionate 
to  the  degree  of  the  increase  in  delicacy  and  decrease  in 
stamina.  The  proviso  that  other  things  shall  be  equal  is 
made  because  decreased  production  may  arise  from  various 
other  causes  for  which  increased  delicacy  and  lowered  stam- 
ina may  be  in  no  way  responsible.  Decrease  in  production, 
the  outcome  of  one  or  both  of  these  causes,  is  sometimes 
witnessed  in  the  lack  of  staying  power  in  the  running  or 
trotting  horse,  of  endurance  in  labor  in  the  draft  horse,  of 
milk  yields  in  the  dairy  cow,  of  vigor  in  new  born  lambs 
and  of  decrease  in  the  producing  power  of  some  of  the 
lard  breeds  of  swine. 

The  fact,  however,  should  be  carefully  noted,  that  the 
degree  of  the  protection  called  for  varies  with  the  species. 
The  necessity  for  this  arises  from  a  difference  in  inherent 
constitutional  endowment,  modified  by  the  object  or  objects 
for  which  the  animals  are  maintained.  The  highest  degree 
of  protection  is  called  for  by  swine,  next  come  dairy  cows, 
then  beef  cattle,  after  beef  cattle  sheep  and  after  sheep 
horses  and  mules.  In  furnishing  protection  these  constitu- 
tional variations  must  be  recognized.  The  degree  of  pro- 
tection just  right  for  swine  would  soon  prove  fatal  to 
sheep,  and  that  exactly  suited  to  the  dairy  cow  would  be 
destructively  enervating  to  the  horse. 

Unrest  and  improper  feeding.  —  When  feeding  is  insuf- 
ficient or  excessive,  the  unrest  that  follows  is  proportionate, 
and  the  same  is  true  when  the  supply  of  litter  is  inadequate. 
Food  supplies  are  insufficient  when  they  do  not  satisfy 
the  cravings  of  the  appetite,  when  they  satisfy  the  former 
but  do  not  afford  sufficient  nutriment,  or  when  they  are 


RESTFULNESS    IN   ANIMALS  99 

sought  at  a  loss  of  energy  that  hinders  growth  or  perform- 
ance. They  are  excessive  when  they  are  taken  to  the  extent 
of  producing  digestive  derangement  or  even  temporary 
discomfort. 

The  sense  of  deprivation  caused  by  hunger  in  animals 
cannot  be  described  by  language,  but  it  can  be  understood 
in  a  way  by  every  human  being  who  knows  what  it  is  to  be 
hungry.  It  begets  unrest.  It  is  not  when  the  lion's  appe- 
tite is  satisfied  that  he  ranges  through  the  forest,  but  when 
lie  is  hungry,  even  in  the  stall  the  animal  will  not  be  content 
under  such  conditions.  There  is  hindrance,  therefore,  to 
growth  or  performance  arising  from  the  unrest  growing  out 
of  short  supplies  in  addition  to  the  hindrance  to  these  aris- 
ing from  insufficient  nutrition. 

Food  given  in  excess  produces  discomfort  for  the  time 
being  and  if  continued  for  any  considerable  length  of  time 
will  eventually  derange  digestion.  There  are  some  foods 
which  animals  will  not  usually  take  in  excess  under  normal 
conditions.  Grass  is  one  of  these  and  hay  is  another. 
Wheat  bran  among  meals  stands  almost  alone  in  not  pro- 
ducing digestive  disturbance  under  ordinary  conditions, 
though  the  animal  should  eat  of  it  to  the  extent  of  satis- 
fying the  appetite,  and  oats  among  cereals  comes  the  nearest 
to  accomplishing  the  same  without  injury.  Notwithstand- 
ing, grass  under  some  conditions  will  lead  to  purging,  hay 
in  some  instances  will  hinder  rather  than  help  labor,  as 
when  eaten  by  horses  to  excess,  and  the  same  is  true  of  bran 
and  even  of  oats  if  eaten  in  excess  by  the  running  horse 
just  before  a  race. 

Other  foods  are  only  dangerous  when  eaten  under 
improper  conditions,  as  for  instance  clover  and  rape  pas- 
ture, and  yet  are  always  harmful  when  eaten  under  such 
conditions.  Nearly  all  kinds  of  cereals  and  the  by-prod- 
ucts made  from  them  are  harmful  but  by  no  means  equally 
so  when  eaten  in  excess.  Prolonged  feeding  of  these  :n 
excess  is  certain  to  produce  derangement  of  the  digestive 
organs.  As  soon  as  this  occurs  these  become  unable  to 


IOO  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

fulfill  their  functions.  Nutrition  is  not  taken  in  sufficient 
quantities  from  the  food,  hence  the  case  becomes  one  of 
starving  in  degree  in  the  presence  of  waste.  If  such  feed- 
ing continues,  the  consequence  will  be  more  harmful,  owing 
to  the  tax  put  upon  the  digestive  organs  through  feeding 
to  it  excessive  supplies  of  food. 

But  should  the  animal  have  to  labor  unduly  in  getting 
its  food,  arid  notwithstanding,  the  supply  secured  is  short, 
the  injury  resulting  will  be  correspondingly  greater.  An 
illustration  is  furnished  by  animals  on  short  supplies  of 
food  when  pasturing.  Under  these  conditions  every  step 
taken  by  the  animal  in  excess  of  what  is  necessary  to  main- 
tain health  is  taken  at  a  loss  to  development  or  perform- 
ance. The  same  is  true  of  work  horses  who  are  made  to 
expend  too  much  energy  in  masticating  food  not  properly 
prepared  for  them  when  taking  their  noonday  meal  in  the 
short  space  usually  allotted  to  it. 

Discomfort  frequently  arises  from  requiring  animals  to 
lie  down  on  a  bed  which  does  not  furnish  the  requisite 
conditions  of  comfort.  Any  bed  harder  than  earth  which  is 
not  furnished  with  bedding  is  too  hard.  The  same  is  true 
of  any  bed  that  does  not  furnish  the  resting  animal  with 
conditions  that  will  maintain  the  necessary  bodily  heat. 
These  questions  call  for  consideration  from  those  who  use 
cement  or  concrete  floors,  notwithstanding  their  excellences 
in  various  ways.  Yards  in  which  steers  are  compelled  to 
lie  down  amid  numerous  clods  formed  from  congealed  ex- 
crement furnish  sleeping  conditions  adverse  to  well 
doing.  Damp  beds  for  swine  in  cold  weather  will  soon 
produce  physical  wreckage,  and  these  are  even  more 
fatal  to  sheep.  The  degree  of  the  loss  from  discom- 
fort arising  from  allowing  cattle  that  are  being  fat- 
tened to  wade  in  miry  yards  has  been  made  the  sub- 
ject of  experiment  by  some  of  the  stations,  and  as 
was  to  be  expected,  it  has  proved  to  be  considerable. 
Under  some  conditions  ample  supplies  of  litter  may  be  dif- 
ficult to  obtain,  but  because  of  their  absorbing  powers  they 


RESTFULNESS   IN   ANIMALS  IOI 

are  useful  as  well  as  because  of  the  comfort  which  they 
bring. 

Unrest  and  irregularity. — Domestic  animals  come  to 
look  for  food  at  a  definite  time  when  they  are  fed  with 
reasonable  regularity.  Although  they  cannot  of  course  con- 
sult a  timepiece,  they  come  to  know  almost  to  a  minute 
when  the  time  for  feeding  arrives.  That  they  are  in  the 
expectant  mood  is  shown  by  cattle  in  the  stalls  usually 
rising  to  their  feet  when  the  hour  for  feeding  draws  near, 
and  by  those  in  the  field  being  at  the  feeding  troughs  when 
they  are  accustomed  to  get  their  food.  "The  ox  knoweth 
his  owner  and  the  ass  his  master's  crib."  Sheep  will 
frequently  proclaim  this  expectancy  by  bleating  if  there  is 
any  delay,  and  swine  above  all  animals  will  proclaim  their 
sense  of  neglect  by  the  unanimity  which  they  show  in 
making  hideous  noises.  Delay  in  feeding  in  such  instances 
means  unrest,  a  condition  which  can  be  well  understood  by 
the  individual  who  goes  beyond  the  accustomed  hour  in 
taking  food. 

The  same  is  true  of  furnishing  water.  Where  water 
is  accessible  at  all  times,  of  course  animals  will  help  them- 
selves when  they  want  it,  but  when  supplied  only  at  inter- 
vals they  come  to  look  for  it  at  such  times.  The  system 
craves  it  because  of  the  habit  begotten,  and  experiences 
disquietude  when  it  is  not  supplied  on  time. 

It  is  equally  advantageous  to  milk  cows  with  unfail- 
ing regularity.  When  the  usual  hour  arrives  they  expect 
to  be  relieved  of  the  milk  which  they  have  been  making, 
otherwise  its  retention  interferes  more  or  less  with  milk 
elaboration  for  the  next  milking.  Experience  has  shown 
that  maximum  production  in  milk  cannot  be  realized  from 
any  cow  from  which  the  milk  is  not  regularly  withdrawn. 
It  has  been  noticed  that  even  the  unhallowed  rest  which 
on  Sabbath  morning  sometimes  leads  to  delay  in  milking 
the  cows  of  a  herd,  sensibly  decreases  the  milk  flow  from 
two  or  three  milkings  immediately  following. 


IO2  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

It  is  equally  important  to  work  horses  with  regularity 
where  the  circumstances  are  such  as  will  admit  of  it. 
Habit  in  work  is  much  the  same  in  horses  as  in  men.  Ask 
a  man  to  perform  the  work  that  he  is  accustomed  to  do 
between  the  hours  of  seven  and  twelve  in  the  morning 
at  any  period  of  equal  duration  prior  to  that  hour  or  sub- 
sequently, and  he  will  not  perform  it  with  the  same  ease, 
though  sufficiently  supplied  with  nutriment  that  may  be 
exactly  suitable.  Habit  has  prepared  the  muscles  for  work- 
ing under  certain  conditions,  and  at  certain  times,  and  any 
disturbance  in  those  conditions  means  lessened  capacity 
for  work.  This  is  seen  no  less  in  the  domain  of  mind  than 
in  that  of  matter.  In  one  instance,  a  man  does  his  best  work 
intellectually  in  the  early  morning  hours.  In. another  in- 
stance, another  will  do  his  best  work  in  the  late  evening, 
and  this  may  sometimes  happen  with  members  of  the  same 
family.  Ask  either  to  do  the  same  work  at  any  other 
hour  or  hours  of  the  day  and  the  effort  would  end  in 
failure.  The  same  law  governs  the  effective  use  of  mus- 
cles in  men  that  governs  the  same  in  horses. 

The  farmer  who  is  his  own  feeder,  and  who  makes  the 
time  or  times  of  feeding  subservient  to  the  demands  of 
other  work  greatly  errs.  Other  work  is  with  things  inani- 
mate, or  at  least  with  things  that  do  not  feel,  and  conse- 
quently are  not  conscious  of  deprivation.  The  feeding 
of  a  herd  or  flock,  therefore,  should  never  be  made  to 
give  place  to  the  plowii  ^  of  a  field. 

Unrest  and  insect  pests. — As  is  known  to  all,  certain 
forms  of  insect  and  parasitical  life  prey  upon  domestic 
animals  to  an  extent  that  seriously  hinders  growth  during 
the  period  of  growth  and  production  at  a  later  period. 
These  may,  speaking  in  a  general  way,  be  divided  into 
three  classes ;  viz.,  those  which  irritate  temporarily  by 
their  bite  or  sting ;  those  which  produce  prolonged  irritation 
by  the  intolerable  itching  which  they  give  rise  to,  and  those 
which  affect  a  lodgment  within  the  tissues  or  within  cer- 
tain organs  of  the  body.  To  the  first  class  belong  flies, 


RESTFULNESS   IN   ANIMALS  IO3 

to  the  second  the  mite  which  produces  sheep  scab,  and 
to  the  third  the  stomach  worm. 

Each  class  of  domestic  animals  has  its  own  peculiar 
insect  and  parasitical  foes.  The  horse  is  annoyed  by  many 
kinds  of  flies  and  also  by  certain  skin  diseases  which  pro- 
duce unrest,  although  every  form  of  irritation  from  the 
itching  of  the  skin  does  not  arise  from  the  presence  of 
insect  life.  The  condition  of  the  blood  may  produce  much 
irritation.  The  Bot  fly  (Gasterophilus  equi)  is  peculiarly 
the  enemy  of  the  horse. 

Prominent  among  the  fly  enemies  of  cattle  are  the 
House  fly  (Muse a  domestica),  and  the  Horn  fly  (Passalus 
cornutus).  They  are  also  annoyed  by  warbles  or  grubs 
which  are  developed  in  the  fleshy  tissues  immediately  under- 
neath the  skin.  They  suffer  from  the  presence  of  lice  which 
irritate  by  biting.  They  are  also  liable  to  attack  from  such 
skin  diseases  as  ringworm  and  mange,  the  latter  of  which 
is  peculiarly  harmful,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it 
is  communicated,  the  extent  to  which  it  annoys  and  the  pro- 
longed treatment  oftentimes  called  for  in  removing  it. 

Sheep  are  peculiarly  liable  to  attack  from  a  species  of 
the  Gad  fly  (Tabanus  ruficornis),  which  at  a  certain  time  of 
the  year  sometimes  succeeds  in  depositing  eggs  in  the  nos- 
tril, which  give  rise  to  the  trouble  known  as  "grub  in  the 
head."  The  Sheep  tick  (Melophagus  ovinus)  and  the  mite 
(Psoroptcs  equi),  which  produces  scab,  are  peculiarly 
enemies  of  sheep.  The  same  is  also  true  of  certain  par- 
asitical troubles,  such  as  Tape  worm  (Bothriocephalus 
latus),  Stomach  worm,  (Ascaris  lumbricoides,)  and  nodule 
disease. 

Swine  are  much  subject  to  attack  from  lice,  which, 
unless  dislodged,  go  down  from  one  generation  to  another. 
They  are  also  subject  to  mange,  and  there  is  no  animal 
probably  which  suffers  so  much  from  the  house  fly.  This 
arises  in  part,  at  least,  from  the  extent  to  which  they  are 
so  frequently  fed  and  housed  in  proximity  to  surroundings 
favorable  to  the  breeding  of  the  flies. 


IO4  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  methods  by  which  those  varied  forms  of  insect 
life  are  to  be  combated  will  not  be  discussed  here.  They 
have  been  mentioned  for  the  purpose,  first,  of  pointing  them 
out  as  prominent  among  the  sources  of  annoyance  and 
harm  to  domestic  animals,  emanating  from  insect  and  par- 
asitical sources,  and  second,  of  emphasizing  the  fact  that 
their  presence  is  always  adverse  to  well  doing  in  farm 
animals.  The  injury  resulting  ranges  all  the  way  from 
temporary  annoyance  of  short  duration  to  weeks  and  some- 
times months  of  suffering.  In  other  instances  death  re- 
sults. Watchfulness  may  entirely  prevent  the  presence  of 
many  of  those  sources  of  irritation  and  in  other  instances 
prompt  action  may  remove  them  when  they  appear.  But, 
whenever  present,  they  exact  a  proportionate  penalty  which 
the  owner  of  the  stock  has  to  pay. 

Unrest  and  labor. — All  labor  is  harmful  when  it  is 
carried  to  the  extent  of  hindering  growth  before  maturity, 
production  before  or  after  maturity,  or  when  it  shortens  the 
period  for  producing.  Illustrations  are  furnished  in  the 
grazing  of  animals  on  short  pastures,  overtaxing  digestion 
at  any  time  and  in  working  horses  beyond  their  capacity. 

Up  to  a  certain  limit,  grazing  is  not  labor.  It  is  exer- 
cise which  tends  to  invigorate  the  whole  being  of  the  ani- 
mal. It  becomes  labor  when  it  disturbs  the  equilibrium 
that  should  exist  between  exercise  and  rest.  Under  some 
conditions,  it  may  not  be  possible  to  maintain  such  equi- 
librium, as  when  animals  graze  on  mountain  pastures  or  on 
those  of  the  range.  But  under  farm  conditions  the  proper 
relation  between  these  can  usually  be  controlled  by  the  exer- 
cise of  sufficient  forethought.  The  amount  of  exercise  thus 
taken  without  injuring  differs  in  species  and  in  individuals. 
Horses  and  sheep  can  take  more  than  cattle  and  swine, 
and  light-bodied  animals  more  than  those  that  are  heavy. 
But  in  all  instances  when  the  amount  of  time  called  for  in 
securing  food  does  not  allow  time  enough  for  rest  and 
recuperation,  the  penalty  is  hindered  growth  or  production. 


RESTFULNESS   IN   ANIMALS  IO5 

When  an  animal  is  given  an  undue  proportion  of  unnu- 
tritious  elements  in  the  food  fed  to  it,  the  labor  put  upon 
it  is  excessive  in  digesting  such  food.  Suppose  it  could 
take  enough  to  supply  its  needs,  energy  is  thus  expended  to 
no  purpose,  hence  flesh-making,  milk-giving  or  return  in 
physical  work  is  so  far  hindered.  Again  an  animal  is  being 
fattened.  It  is  given  more  concentrated  foods  than  it  can 
properly  digest.  Energy  is  unduly  drawn  upon  in  the  effort 
of  digestion  to  reduce  and  assimilate  the  excess,  and  again 
in  the  effort  of  the  secretions  to  carry  off  the  waste.  There 
is  thus  a  waste  of  energy,  even  though  the  power  to  digest 
should  not  become  impaired.  Again,  when  food  i£  given 
not  in  the  best  condition  of  preparation  for  being  easily 
digested,  the  digestive  powers  are  taxed  unnecessarily.  Po- 
tatoes fed  in  the  raw  rather  than  in  the  cooked  form  to 
swine  that  are  being  fattened,  furnish  an  illustration  of 
such  feeding.  Happily,  however,  many  foods  as  furnished 
by  nature  are  in  the  best  condition  for  easy  digestion  as 
nature  has  furnished  them. 

The  requirements  of  labor  from  the  horse  are  excessive, 
first,  when  more  labor  is  required  of  him  than  his  natural 
physical  endowment  can  endure,  that  is,  when  he  is  worked 
beyond  his  strength;  second,  when  more  labor  is  exacted 
than  the  food  nutrients  though  digested  can  sustain ;  third, 
when  the  labor  though  not  excessive  in  kind  is  excessive  in 
degree,  either  through  being  too  violent  in  character  as 
when  a  horse  is  overdriven,  or  too  long  continued  as  when 
he  is  worked  too  many  hours.  The  law  of  equilibrium 
between  labor  and  rest  demands  that  sufficient  time  must 
be  given  from  day  to  day  to  rest  as  well  as  to  work,  and 
when  this  is  not  given  the  penalty  of  a  lessened  return 
is  exacted  with  unfailing  certainty. 

Overwork  in  all  these  instances  reduces  the  period  for 
profitable  production  and  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
such  overwork.  The  earlier  in  the  life  of  the  animal  that  the 
overwork  occurs,  of  course  the  more  harmful  it  is,  because 
of  the  longer  period  that  is  affected  by  it.  Animals  are 


IO6  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

also  more  susceptible  to  injury  from  this  source  while  in 
process  of  development. 

Unrest  and  vicious  animals. — In  some  instances,  the 
stronger  animals  of  the  stud  or  herd  so  injure  and  domineer 
as  it  were  over  those  that  are  weaker,  as  to  hinder  develop- 
ment or  production,  and  in  some  instances  both.  This 
tendency  is  more  strongly  developed  in  horses  and  cattle 
than  in  sheep  and  swine,  and  probably  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  more  effectively  armed  with  weapons  of  offence. 
Sheep  are  almost  entirely  free  from  viciousness,  hence  they 
have  come  to  be  the  emblem  of  innocence  and  passive  suf- 
fering. . 

In  some  instances  the  tendency  is  inherited,  in  others 
it  is  begotten  and  strengthened  by  short  supplies  of  food. 
In  the  latter  instances  horses,  cattle  and  swine  will  play 
the  dog  in  the  manger  over  food  that  may  be  given,  with 
the  difference  that  they  consume  the  best  of  the  food, 
whereas,  the  dog  does  not  consume  any.  Under  such  con- 
ditions horses  sometimes  strike  and  kick  viciously,  cattle 
gore  mercilessly, .  and  swine  will  move  back  and  forth 
wantonly  along  the  trough,  punishing  every  animal  as  they 
go  and  eating  all  the  time  with  gluttonous  haste.  Even 
sheep,  when  rack  room  is  not  abundant,  will,  through 
crowding,  force  the  weaker  animals  to  stand  back  and 
watch  for  their  opportunity.  Unless  some  remedy  is 
brought  to  bear,  the  return  from  the  weaker  animals  will 
be  seriously  lessened. 

In  some  instances  the  only  remedy  is  removing  either 
the  strong  or  the  weak  to  separate  quarters.  This  remedy 
is  about  the  only  one  that  can  be  applied  in  the  case  of 
horses  and  swine.  With  cattle,  dehorning  is  effective. 
The  removal  of  the  horns  after  they  have  grown  a  while, 
say  until  the  animals  are  one  year  old,  is  more  potent  in 
its  influence  on  docility  than  preventing  the  horns  from 
growing  in  early  calf  hood.  If  the  horns  are  not  allowed 
to  grow,  the  animals  learn  to  strike  with  the  head  more 
or  less.  If  they  are  allowed  to  remain  long  enough  to 


RESTFULNESS    IN   ANIMALS  I©7 

enable  the  animals  to  realize  their  use,  and  yet  not  long 
enough  to  permit  them  to  do  serious  harm  to  their  fellow 
animals  by  using  them,  the  spirit  of  viciousness  is  almost 
completely  broken.  Dehorned  animals  are  more  completely 
docile  than  animals  naturally  polled. 

Animals  chased  or  injured  by  wild  animals,  as  wolves, 
or  by  wanton  dogs,  sustain  injury  far  beyond  that  resulting 
from  the  actual  physical  harm  at  the  time.  Chase  and  worry 
swine  by  dogs  occasionally,  and  they  become  restless.  They 
will  in  time  rush  away  when  a  dog  is  called  within  their 
hearing,  whereas,  other  swine  will  give  no  heed  to  such 
calls,  indicating  that  apprehension,  which  means  unrest,  is 
present  in  their  conceptions.  Sheep  that  have  been  chased 
by  dogs  once  or  oftener,  become  so  apprehensive  that  in 
some  instances  they  never  produce  profitably  again.  The 
injury  done  by  dogs  to  sheep  and  the  apprehension  of  los»s 
from  this  source,  has  probably  retarded  sheep  husbandry 
more  than  all  other  causes  combined.  The  supineness  that 
has  been  shown  in  dealing  with  this  question  by  legisla- 
tures is  nothing  short  of  a  stigma  on  an  intelligent  people. 

In  some  instances  animals  suffer  greater  injury  at  the 
hands  of  man  than  from  each  other.  Some  attendants  are 
simply  brutal  in  their  treatment  of  animals,  and  the  same 
is  true  occasionally  of  owners.  The  basis  of  their  treat- 
ment rests  on  passions  uncontrolled.  Angry  words  and 
angry  blows  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Their  unoffending 
dependents  instinctively  shun  their  presence  when  they  can. 
The  unrest  thus  occasioned  results  in  decreased  produc- 
tion. The  penalty  thus  paid  is  always  proportioned  to  the 
degree  of  the  unrest  occasioned  by  such  treatment,  and  it  is 
meet  that  it  should  be  so.  It  would  not  seem  fitting  that 
such  offenders  should  reach  final  judgment  before  they  re- 
ceive the  first  instalment  of  the  retributive  punishment 
due  to  their  indefensibly  harsh  treatment. 

Unrest  and  sexual  desire. — With  breeding  animals, 
unrest  is  occasioned  at  certain  seasons  by  sexual  desire. 


IO8  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

With  females  such  unrest  occurs  at  certain  regular  inter- 
nals. Those  intervals  are  known  as  seasons  when  in  heat, 
and  they  occur  with  unfailing  regularity,  when  conditions 
are  normal,  from  the  time  that  females  are  capable  of  con- 
ception until  they  reach  an  age  when  they  are  no  longer 
able  to  conceive.  Of  course  the  period  of  pregnancy  and 
for  some  time  subsequently  to  parturition  are  exceptions. 
It  is  in  a  sense  surprising,  that  with  domestic  quadrupeds 
the  interval  between  those  periods  is  practically  the  same, 
notwithstanding  the  marked  difference  in  the  natural  longev- 
ity of  the  different  species.  They  occur  at  intervals  of 
21  days,  and  last  for  about  three  days.  During  those  periods 
the  animals  are  in  a  condition  of  unrest,  and  one  of  its 
worst  features  is  that  it  tends  to  disturb  other  animals  of 
the  herd.  Because  of  this,  where  it  is  practicable,  such 
animals  should  be  confined  until  the  season  of  heat  is 
passed.  During  their  continuance  production  in  the  form 
of  either  milk  or  meat  is  greatly  hindered. 

When  animals  are  reared  for  meat  only,  unrest  from 
sexual  desire  is  prevented  by  castration  or  spaying  opera- 
tions, which  may  be  performed  with  greater  safety  when 
the  animals  are  young  than  when  considerably  advanced 
in  age.  These  operations  have  a  beneficial  influence  on 
development  with  reference  to  increase  in  certain  parts  of 
the  carcass  that  are  more  valuable  for  meat  and  decrease 
with  reference  to  parts  that  are  less  valuable.  This  is  more 
especially  true  of  males.  The  influence  thus  exerted  is  far 
reaching  and  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  relative  price 
that  shall  be  paid  for  the  finished  carcass. 

When  males  are  kept  mainly  or  solely  for  breeding 
purposes,  as  a  rule  they  should  be  kept  separate  from 
the  females,  because  of  the  unrest  from  sexual  desire  caused 
by  unrestrained  access  to  the  presence  ot  the  latter.  This 
unrest  is  of  course  greatest  when  some  of  the  females  are 
in  heat,  and  'in  such  instances  it  results  in  needless  waste 
of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  male.  Even  when  kept  apart 
but  in  adjoining  fields,  the  unrest  thus  occasioned  may  lead 


RESTFULNESS   IN   ANIMALS  ICX) 

to  results  that  are  greatly  harmful.  In  some  instances  with 
swine,  males  have  been  rendered  impotent  by  such  prox- 
imity to  pastures  in  which  females  have  grazed  in  large 
numbers. 

Nor  is  the  plan  to  be  commended  of  allowing  males  and 
females  to  herd  together  during  seasons  when  the  females 
are  pregnant,  or  when  they  do  not  come  in  heat.  The  latter 
are  much  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  the  former,  and  to  the 
extent  of  more  or  less  of  harm  resulting  to  both. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PRINCIPLES   THAT   RELATE   TO   PROLONGED 
USEFULNESS. 

Years  ago  domestic  animals  matured  much  more  slowly 
than  they  do  today.  Those  intended  for  labor  were  not 
pushed  so  rapidly  nor  were  they  required  to  work  so  early 
as  is  customary  with  such  animals  today.  Those  intended 
for  the  block  were  given  at  least  50  per  cent  more  time 
in  which  to  reach  maturity  than  is  accorded  to  them  today. 
Nor  were  cows  reared  for  the  dairy  bred  so  young  as  now. 
The  bearing  of  this  upon  prolonged  usefulness  with  reference 
to  labor,  continuity  in  profitable  breeding  and  abundant  milk 
giving1  was  very  direct  and  far-reaching.  Unquestionably, 
the  relation  between  the  time  required  for  maturity 
and  the  continuity  of  usefulness  is  very  direct  and  close. 
There  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the 
author  that  quick  maturity  secured  under  high  pressure 
feeding  tends  to  shorten  this  period  of  usefulness  in  the 
life  of  the  animal,  notwithstanding  that  the  demonstration 
of  this  fact  may  in  a  sense  be  an  impossibility  at  the  present 
time,  from  the  absence  of  the  necessary  data. 

The  benefits  from  prolonged  usefulness  are  many  and 
important.  These  include  the  following:  (i)  The  ani- 
mal must  be  grown  for  a  time  before  it  begins  to  give  any 
return,  hence,  the  shorter  the  period  of  usefulness  in  ani- 
mals, the  larger  the  number  that  must  be  grown  in  order 
to  produce  a  given  result.  From  want  of  sufficient  data,  it 
may  not  be  possible  to  show  that  there  is  more  profit  in 
maturing  animals  for  labor  and  milk  giving,  also  for  breed- 
ing with  only  moderate  haste  than  under  high  pressure 
feeding,  but  in  view  of  the  fact,  first,  that  fewer  animals 
are  to  be  reared  and  maintained  to  produce  a  given  result ; 
second,  that  the  results  from  breeding  are  more  satisfactory ; 

no 


USEFULNESS    IN    ANIMALS  -III 

and  third,  that  high  selection  is  more  easily  possible  the 
fewer  the  number  of  animals  required,  it  would  seem  rea- 
sonable to  conclude  that  highest  profit  would  result  from 
not  rushing  maturity.  The  additional  cost  also  of  securing 
the  larger  number  of  animals  prior  to  the  birth  period,  tends 
to  further  strengthen  this  conclusion;  (2)  the  feeding  is 
not  of  the  high  pressure  order,  and  therefore,  it  is  not  so 
costly.  Too  much  must  not  be  made  of  this  fact,  however, 
as  it  is  to  some  extent  offset  by  increased  cost  of  food 
of  maintenance  in  the  slower  maturing  animals;  (3)  the 
productive  return  is  more  certain  than  from  animals  young 
and  unproved,  hence  the  risk  of  introducing  animals  that 
are  inferior  for  work  as  breeders,  and  also  as  performers  at 
the  pail,  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Fewer  animals  are 
required  to  produce  a  given  result,  for  the  reason  that  they 
produce  for  a  longer  period.  The  smaller  the  number  of 
the  animals  to  be  chosen,  the  less  the  hazard  of  introducing 
individuals  that  are  mediocre  or  low  performers.  Nor  is 
the  fact  to  be  overlooked,  that  the  early  years  of  production 
are  not  so  valuable  as  those  that  come  later.  The  young 
horse  is  not  at  his  best  for  two  or  three  years  after  he 
begins  to  labor  and  the  same  is  true  of  milk  giving  in  the 
cow.  The  fewer  the  number  of  animals,  therefore,  that  are 
required  to  produce  a  given  result,  the  fewer  relatively  will 
be  the  number  of  those  years  of  performance  below  what  is 
maximum.  It  is  different,  however,  with  animals  that  are 
being  grown  for  the  block.  The  more  quickly  they  are 
grown  without  excessive  feeding,  the  more  profitably  are 
they  grown. 

Deferred  production  and  usefulness. — The  period  of 
usefulness  may  be  prolonged  in  various  ways.  Among 
these  are  the  following:  (i)  By  not  seeking  production 
at  too  early  a  period  in  the  life  of  the  animal;  (2)  by 
practicing  moderation  in  feeding  while  the  animal  is  in 
process  of  development  and  subsequently;  (3)  by  intel- 
ligently adapting  the  degree  of  exercise  given  to  the  needs  of 


112.  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

the  animal.  Of  course,  inheritance  also  has  a  qualifying  influ- 
ence, but  that  phase  of  the  question  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed. (See  page  37.) 

Production  is  sought  at  too  early  a  period  when  the 
animals  are  bred  too  near  the  birth  period,  when  the  milk 
giving  begins  at  too  young  an  age,  or  when  labor  is  required 
at  a  period  too  early  in  the  process  of  development. 

The  age  at  which  animals  should  be  bred  depends 
somewhat  on  the  class  of  the  animal  and  also  the  object  for 
which  it  is  kept.  There  should  be  a  proper  relation  be- 
tween the  period  of  the  first  breeding  and  the  period  of 
average  usefulness  in  the  life  of  the  animal.  The  longer 
the  time  covered  by  this  period,  the  longer  should  the  first 
mating  be  deferred.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  deferred 
breeding  would  stand  in  the  following  order  with  domestic 
animals:  Standard-bred  horses,  draft  horses,  beef  cattle, 
dairy  cattle,  sheep  kept  mainly  for  wool,  sheep  kept  mainly 
for  mutton,  swine  grown  primarily  for  bacon  and  swine 
of  the  lard  types.  The  longest  period  of  the  deferred  breed- 
ing would  apply  to  standard-bred  horses,  and  would  de- 
crease with  the  other  classes  in  the  order  named.  It  would 
seem  at  least  approximately  correct  to  say  that  the  relation 
between  the  time  of  the  first  mating  and  the  period  of  use- 
fulness covered  in  the  life  of  the  animal,  would  be  as  one 
is  to  six;  that  is,  if  the  period  of  usefulness  covered  by 
the  average  animal  were  12  years,  it  may  be  bred  at  the 
age  of  two  years.  This  would  make  the  minimum  age 
for  breeding  the  various  classes  of  animals  named  approx- 
imately as  follows:  Swine  of  the  lard  types  one  year, 
mutton  sheep  one  and  one-half  years,  dairy  cows  one  and 
three-fourths  years,  cows  of  the  beef  breeds  two  years, 
draft  mares  two  and  one-half  years,  and  the  standard-bred 
three  years.  In  practice  the  two  classes  of  sheep  and  swine 
named  are  bred  at  the  same  age,  in  order  to  have  the  young 
produced  at  the  most  favorable  season  of  the  year  for  such 
production,  and  in  order  to  accomplish  this,  the  time  for 
the  first  breeding  may  come  a  little  earlier  or  later  than 


USEFULNESS   IN   ANIMALS  113 

the  age  named.  Sheep,  for  instance,  are  sufficiently  ma- 
tured for  being  bred  at  a  younger  age  than  18  months,  but 
for  the  reason  just  given  are  not  usually  bred  until  19 
months  old. 

The  objection  to  immature  breeding  is  found  in  the 
undue  tax  which  it  puts  upon  the  system.  While  develop- 
ment is  yet  uncompleted,  the  system  is  taxed  by  reproduc- 
tion. When  the  energies  of  the  system  are  thus  divided  at 
too  early  an  age,  the  development  of  the  animal  is  hindered, 
so  that  it  is  less  perfect  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  animal  produced.  It  has  not  been  de- 
veloped in  the  highest  sense  while  in  embryo,  and,  there- 
fore, begins  the  race  in  life  at  a  disadvantage.  Stamina  is 
lowered  and  size  lessened  in  both  the  animal  producing  and 
that  produced.  The  argument  is  not  tenable  that  animals 
may  be  bred  as  soon  as  they  are  capable  of  breeding.  To 
practice  this  generally  would  be  followed  by  decadence, 
that  would  result  in  great  deterioration  with  domestic  ani- 
mals and  with  the  human  family  as  well.  Should  it  be 
objected  that  wild  animals  breed  at  the  earliest  age  possible, 
and  yet  do  not  deteriorate,  the  answer  is  found  in  the  pre- 
carious character  of  the  food  supplies  which  insures  rela- 
tively slow  development. 

A  second  objection  to  immature  breeding  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  no  sooner  has  the  animal  produced  than 
the  drain  on  the  system  in  order  to  feed  it  becomes  inten- 
sified. The  influence  of  such  a  drain  is  best  seen  in  the 
quick  tendency  in  the  sow,  and  especially  the  immature  sow, 
to  lose  flesh  while  nursing  her  young.  Beyond  question, 
reproduction  unduly  early,  though  it  may  hasten  returns  at 
the  first,  is  obtained  at  the  cost  of  less  perfect  development 
and  also  at  that  of  a  curtailed  period  of  production.  Should 
the  animal  thus  required  to  give  milk  while  yet  imma- 
ture be  soon  bred  again,  the  evil  is  intensified.  The  three^ 
fold  burden  is  laid  upon  the  animal  of  completing  matu- 
rity, of  furnishing  milk  and  of  again  nourishing  the  foetus 
from  a  second  impregnation. 


114  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Should  the  question  be  raised  as  to  whether  animals 
should  be  allowed  to  mature  fully  before  being  bred,  theo- 
retically the  answer  given  must  be  yes,  but  practically  it 
is  no.  It  has  been  noticed  that  there  is  some  danger  that 
the  organs  of  reproduction  may  become  less  active  if 
breeding  is  long  deferred,  hence  the  number  of  non-breed- 
ers is  increased  by  such  breeding.  Food  overabundant  and 
lacking  in  succulence  intensifies  such  a  condition.  It  is 
also  thought,  that  a  habit  of  the  system  to  nourish  the 
frame,  at  the  expense  of  lessened  capacity  for  milk  pro- 
duction, is  thus  unduly  intensified.  It  would  seem  probable, 
however,  that  many  dairymen  have  overestimated  this  dan- 
ger, and  have  in  consequence  been  led  to  breed  the  young 
females  of  the  herd  at  too  early  an  age.  Where  influences 
thus  antagonistic  meet  the  breeder  in  his  operations,  the 
onlv  wise  course  is  compromise,  that  is  to  have  animals 
bred  while  maturity  is  yet  uncompleted  but  at  a  more 
advanced  age  than  that  at  which  they  are  now  generally 
bred. 

The  third  objection  to  immature  production  applies  to 
labor,  such  as  is  now  generally  performed  by  the  horse 
and  mule.  If  labor,  and  especially  labor  unduly  severe,  is 
required  of  these  animals  while  short  of  maturity,  capacity 
for  labor  will  undoubtedly  be  lessened  and  also  the  period 
of  effective  labor.  Notice,  it  is  not  labor  that  is  thus  crit- 
icised, but  labor  that  is  unduly  severe,  which  means  driving 
the  standard-bred  horse  too  rapidly  at  too  young  an  age 
and  setting  the  draft  horse  and  the  mule  drawing  burdens 
beyond  their  strength.  In  both  instances,  such  labor  con- 
tinued until  the  energies  are  fagged  intensifies  the  resultant 
injury.  But  light  labor,  even  at  an  early  age,  should  not  be 
in  any  sense  harmful,  since  it  is  in  line  with  the  natural 
tendency  in  the  young  horse  to  take  abundant  exercise. 
Without  doubt  the  muscular  capacity  of  the  draft  horse 
could  thus  be  increased  by  judicious  labor  while  young,  and 
also  the  staying  capacity  of  the  standard-bred  by  judicious 
driving  at  an  early  age.  It  is  more  important  with  the 


USEFULNESS   IN   ANIMALS  1 15 

horse  and  mule  that  the  period  of  production  shall  be 
prolonged  than  with  animals  whose  flesh  is  used  for  meat 
since  lab(5r  is  the  only  return  which  these  animals  furnish. 

Moderate  feeding  and  usefulness. — The  influence  of 
excessive  feeding  at  any  time  during  the  life  of  the  animal 
is  adverse  to  prolonged  usefulness,  and  the  earlier  that  it 
occurs,  the  more  harmful  is  it.  The  harmful  influences  are 
clearly  seen  in  the  results  from  fitting  young  animals  for 
the  fair,  in  the  decline  of  breeding  power  in  the  milch  cow 
fed  for  any  prolonged  season  under  high  pressure,  and  in 
the  curtailed  period  of  production  in  the  same. 

The  opinion  is  current  among  experienced  breeders 
that  fitting  a  herd  or  flock  for  the  fair  is  in  a  manner 
sacrificing  the  breeding  qualities  of  the  same.  The  advice 
is  freely  tendered  to  those  who  are  about  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation of  herds  or  flocks  not  to  invest  in  prize  winning  ani- 
mals. The  opinion  in  the  one  instance  and  the  advice  in 
the  other,  is  grounded  on  experience  and  observation,  if 
not  indeed  on  both.  When  breeders  claim,  as  sometimes 
they  do,  that  a  certain  animal  in  the  herd  is  too  valuable 
to  sacrifice  by  fitting  it  for  the  fair,  there  is  great  signifi- 
cance in  the  statement.  It  is  not  to  be  understood,  however, 
that  the  breeding  powers  of  all  animals  are  destroyed  or 
even  greatly  lowered  by  such  fitting,  but  it  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  such  hazard  is  always  or  nearly  always  present, 
and  that  it  is  the  result  of  forced  feeding.  The  larger  the 
proportion  of  succulent  foods  fed,  the  more  advanced  the 
age  of  the  animal  and  the  greater  the  skill  of  the  feeder, 
the  less  is  the  hazard  from  such  fitting,  and  in  fitting  dairy 
animals  it  is  largely  eliminated,  since  the  basis  of  judgment 
rests  largely  on  the  evidences  of  milk  capacity  which  does 
not  involve  the  question  of  capacity  to  lay  on  flesh. 

That  breeding  power  in  milch  cows  wanes  under  high 
pressure  feeding  of  long  duration  has  been  shown  in  nu- 
merous instances  by  the  results  from  such  feeding  with 
many  of  the  most  famous  performers  at  the  pail.  The  state- 
ment cannot  be  gainsaid  that  the  progeny  from  them  which 


Il6  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

have  been  equally  famous  at  the  pail  have  been  relatively 
few.  Such  feeding  apparently  disturbs  that  equilibrium 
of  the  system  which  is  equally  favorable  to  milk-giving  and 
to  breeding  capacity.  The  energies  of  the  system  become 
so  centered  on  the  former,  that  transmitting  power  is  ap- 
parently weakened.  It  has  also  been  noticed  that  the 
duration  of  the  period  of  such  production  has  been  short, 
seldom  covering  a  period  of  more  than  two  or  three  years. 
It  then  materially  declines,  and  no  amount  of  skill  can  again 
restore  the  equilibrium.  The  digestive  machinery  has  been 
driven  at  a  pressure  so  high  that  it  has  become  impaired, 
and  the  period  of  profitable  production  in  the  cow  has  been 
proportionately  curtailed. 

Steady,  prolonged  and  high  production  that  does  not  in 
any  way  impair  or  destroy  equilibrium  in  the  system,  is 
to  be  sought  by  the  breeder  rather  than  phenomenally  high 
production,  spasmodic  and  short  lived.  The  temperate  zone 
is  to  be  preferred  to  either  the  frigid  or  the  torrid  zone. 
Likewise  the  medium  high  production  that  does  not  call  for 
forced  feeding  to  produce  it,  and  that  does  not  impair  trans- 
mitting power  or  in  any  way  curtail  capacity  for  prolonged 
usefulness,  is  to  be  preferred  to  high  pressure  production, 
transient  in  duration.  Ten  years  of  milk  production  in  a 
cow  aggregating  60,000  pounds  of  milk,  the  outcome  of 
moderately  high  feeding,  and  a  numerous  progeny  of  good 
performers  is  much  more  profitable  than  six  years  of  milk 
production  aggregating  the  same,  the  outcome  of  immoder- 
ate feeding,  and  a  progeny  not  numerous  nor  capable. 

Exercise  and  usefulness. — The  bearing  of  exercise  on 
prolonged  usefulness  is  both  direct  and  far  reaching.  It 
qualifies  with  a  certainty  that  is  unerring  the  degree  of  the 
present  good  health  that  the  animal  shall  possess,  the  extent 
to  which  it  shall  possess  stamina,  the  powers  of  reproduc- 
tion and  also  the  various  functions  concerned  in  production, 
whether  in  the  form  of  milk  or  labor.  The  degree  of  exer- 
cise called  for,  however,  differs  with  animals  of  the  dif- 
ferent species.  Horses  require  the  most  and  swine  will 


USEFULNESS    IN*  ANIMALS  1 1/ 

do  with  the  least  among  domestic  animals.  Sheep  must 
be  given  more  exercise  than  would  be  suitable  for  cattle. 
Young  animals  also  call  for  more  than  aged.  Such  exer- 
cise is  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  muscle  development, 
and  in  the  firming  of  muscles  during  the  growing  period. 
That  nature  has  made  provision  for  it  is  witnessed  in  the 
gambols  of  young  animals  which  grow  less  and  less  with 
decrease  in  the  necessity  for  them,  as  age  advances.  The 
adverse  influence  of  want  of  exercise  is  readily  seen  in 
the  care  of  swine,  even  when  confined  in  close  pens  and 
especially  when  fed  a  carbonaceous  diet.  Soon  they  become* 
unable  to  use  the  limbs  and  general  disaster  follows  if  such 
treatment  is  continued.  So  is  it  with  all  animals.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  time  when  deprived  of  exercise  as  to 
when  the  inevitable  premature  breakdown  shall  come.  The 
influence  of  want  of  exercise  on  stamina  is  probably  most 
readily  seen  in  the  horse.  Deprive  the  colt  of  exercise 
and  the  muscles  are  so  soft  as  to  become  incapable  of 
enduring  properly  taxing  labor  at  a  later  period.  There 
will  also  be  a  deficiency  in  lung  expansion  and  hence  a 
deficiency  in  staying  power. 

Nowhere  is  the  baneful  influence  of  insufficient  exer- 
cise more  apparent  than  in  the  extent  to  which  it  impairs 
the  powers  of  reproduction.  That  probably  more  than  any 
single  influence  is  responsible  for  barrenness  in  domestic 
animals.  The  adverse  influence  which  it  exercises  on  the 
character  of  the  production  in  breeding  is  even  more 
marked,  as  is  witnessed  in  the  enfeebled  condition  in  which 
young  animals  so  frequently  come  into  life.  Exercise  may 
even  be  withheld  to  the  extent  of  rendering  the  animal 
unable  to  bring  forth  when  the  birth  period  is  reached. 

The  adverse  influence  of  insufficient  exercise  on  pro- 
duction has  already  been  touched  upon  when  speaking  of 
its  influence  on  muscle  development  and  staying  power  in 
the  colt.  The  dairy  cow  in  milk  will  probably  do  with  less 
of  it  than  any  other  animal  on  the  farm.  But,  unquestion- 
ably in  time,  the  want  of  exercise  will  tell  adversely  on 


Il8  FEEDING 'FARM    ANIMALS 

production  in  the  dairy  cow,  if  in  no  other  way  than  through 
the  enfeebling  influence  which  such  want  of  exercise  would 
exert  on  her  entire  system.  The  limit  of  the  restriction 
that  may  be  put  upon  the  exercise  given  to  a  dairy  cow  has 
not  yet  been  fully  determined,  and  probably  it  never  can 
be  to  the  extent  of  formulating  any  rule  that  will  prove 
generally  applicable  since  it  is  a  factor  that  will  be  influ- 
enced by  conditions  which  relate  to  breed  and  general  man- 
agement. That  the  results  referred  to  above  will  tend  to 
curtail  the  period  of  possible  usefulness  in  an  animal  is  so 
patent  that  it  does  not  need  demonstration. 

Of  course  the  period  of  usefulness  may  be  curtailed  by 
over  exercise,  but  such  exercise  will  seldom  be  taken  vol- 
untarily. If  taken  it  is  under  the  constraint  of  labor  that 
compels,  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse,  or  under  the  necessity 
for  exercise  in  searching  for  food,  as  in  the  case  of  ani- 
mals kept  much  of  the  time  on  pastures  quite  inadequate  to 
their  needs. 

Extent  of  prolonged  usefulness. — There  is,  of  course, 
a  limit  to  the  period  covered  by  the  profitable  production 
of  all  animals.  That  period  differs  in  the  classes  of  domestic 
animals  and  in  the  breeds  of  the  same.  Since  it  is  influenced 
by  feeding,  management  and  inheritance,  it  is  evident  that 
the  duration  of  this  period  is  in  a  sense  flexible.  It  may  be 
prolonged  or  shortened.  The  tendency  during  recent  years 
has  been  to  shorten  it  through  shortening  the  period  of 
maturity.  It  would  seem  to  be  easily  possible  to  carry 
change  in  this  direction  too  far,  especially  for  the  best 
interests  of  breeding,  of  milk  production  and  of  labor. 
With  meat-making  animals  it  is  different.  The  end  for 
which  they  are  grown  is  the  block  and  the  age  at  which 
they  will  bring  greatest  profit  for  this  purpose,  all  things 
considered,  is  the  age  when  life  should  terminate  with 
them. 

It  is  entirely  different,  however,  with  breeding  ani- 
mals. The  successive  acts  of  breeding  involve  repetition, 
and  the  greater  the  number  of  the  instances  of  successful 


USEFULNESS    IN   ANIMALS  1 19 

repetition  in  breeding  proper  in  character,  the  greater  will 
be  the  degree  of  the  profit  from  keeping  such  animals  for 
breeding.  The  same  is  true  of  milk  giving.  There  is 
succession  in  its  periods,  and  the  longer  the  succession  of 
those  periods,  that  is,  the  greater  their  number  without 
much  diminution  in  the  maximum  of  milk  furnished  by 
each,  the  greater  will  be  the  return.  With  reference  to 
labor  there  is  also  succession,  and  more  constant  in  char- 
acter than  is  possible  from  either  breeding  or  milk  produc- 
tion. It  is  in  some  instances  daily  repetition  from  year 
to  year.  Its  daily  occurrence  without  the  necessity  for  pe- 
riods of  temporary  cessation  other  than  those  necessary  for 
rest  from  day  to  day,  make  its  prolongation  still  more 
important.  The  importance  of  such  prolongation  is  fur- 
ther emphasized  by  the  fact  that  usually  animals  used  for 
labor,  that  is  horses  and  mules,  are  not  used  for  meat  after 
the  labor  term  is  ended. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  very  evident  the 
age  limit  of  usefulness  cannot  be  definitely  fixed.  With 
animals  grown  primarily  for  meat,  the  shorter  the  life 
period  which  duly  considers  the  cost  up  to  the  time  of  birth, 
and  which  does  not  involve  too  costly  feeding,  the  better. 
With  animals  maintained  primarily  for  breeding  and  in  a 
secondary  sense  for  meat  production  at  the  close  of  the 
breeding  period,  the  aim  should  be  to  prolong  the  period 
of  such  breeding.  The  limit  of  such  prolongation  would 
be  the  limit  of  capacity  for  breeding  without  any  diminu- 
tion in  the  individual  prospective  excellence  in  the  progeny, 
and  without  too  much  reducing  the  value  of  the  carcass 
when  finally  disposed  of.  With  animals  kept  primarily 
for  milk  production  and  in  a  still  more  secondary  sense  for 
meat  making,  at  the  end  of  the  milk-giving  period,  it  is 
still  more  important  that  the  period  of  usefulness  shall  be 
prolonged,  since  animals  may  be  profitable  for  milk  giving 
for  a  longer  period  than  it  would  be  profitable  to  retain 
progeny  which  they  may  bear  for  breeding  uses. 


120  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

In  other  words,  animals  may  be  profitable  for  milking 
when  so  far  past  the  meridian  of  vigor  that  they  may  not 
be  able  to  produce  animals  possessed  of  the  highest  essen- 
tials for  successful  breeding.  The  limit  of  the  period  of 
usefulness  with  these  would  seem  to  be  the  limit  of  mark- 
edly profitable  milk  production.  The  resultant  meat  pro- 
duction from  them  is  of  so  little  account  that  it  is  scarcely 
worthy  of  serious  consideration  as  a  factor  in  influencing 
duration  in  the  milking  period.  It  is  quite  different,  how- 
ever, with  dual  types  of  cows.  With  them  the  carcass  is 
a  factor  of  no  little  importance,  hence  its  value  should  be 
considered.  The  limit  of  the  duration  of  milk  giving  in 
the  dual  cow  would  probably  be  the  same  as  the  limit  of 
the  duration  of  her  capacity  for  successful  breeding.  But 
most  of  all  is  it  important  that  the  period  for  useful  labor 
shall  be  prolonged  in  horses  and  mules,  for  reasons  already 
given.  The  limit  of  the  duration  of  such  usefulness  is  not 
easily  fixed.  It  ought  to  cease  when  the  relative  cost  of 
maintenance  and  of  driving  become  too  great  relatively  for 
the  resultant  profit.  Then  it  is  that  such  animals  should 
be  sent  to  the  shades  of  non-existence  by  some  form  of  easy 
death.  To  sell  them  to  those  who  are  liable  to  abuse  them 
subsequently  would  be  in  a  sense  criminal. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
PRINCIPLES  THAT  RELATE  TO  PREGNANCY 

The  discussion  of  this  question  will  consider  only  such 
phases  of  pregnancy  as  will  show  the  relation  between  food 
and  exercise  and  development  during  the  period  of  preg- 
nancy and  the  nursing  period  that  immediately  follows  it. 
The  whole  question  in  the  wider  sense  is  discussed  by  the 
author  in  the  book,  "Animal  Breeding,"  Chapters  IX  to 
XVI. 

Among  the  principles  that  relate  to  food  and  exercise 
in  their  relation  to  pregnancy  and  that  have  the  strength 
of  law,  are  the  following :  ( i )  The  time  of  mating  is 
much  influenced  by  the  food  fed;  (2)  the  degree  of  the 
impregnation  is  influenced  by  bodily  condition  at  the  time 
of  mating;  (3)  the  relation  between  the  food  fed  and  the 
character  of  the  development  in  utero^  is  intimate  and  close ; 
(4)  sufficient  exercise  for  pregnant  animals  is  absolutely 
essential  to  successful  breeding;  (5)  a  reasonably  high  con- 
dition of  flesh  during  pregnancy  is  in  no  way  antagonistic 
to  successful  breeding;  (6)  dams  in  good  flesh  at  the  time 
of  parturition  can  nourish  their  young  better  than  those 
in  low  flesh. 

Pregnancy  and  time  of  mating. — The  chief  influences 
that  determine  the  breeding  season  are  food,  habit  and  in- 
heritance. The  first  of  these  only  will  be  discussed  here. 
Food  affects  the  time  of  mating  through  the  influence 
which  it  exercises  on  the  system  as  a  whole,  and  more 
particularly  on  the  organs  concerned  in  generation.  It 
would  seem  correct  to  say  that  whatever  aids  digestion 
will  also  prove  an  aid  to  prompt  and  regular  breeding. 
The  breeding  impulse  is  influenced  by  the  character  of  the 

121 


122  .  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS* 

food  fed  as  to  its  constituents,  the  degree  of  its  succulence 
and  the  nutrition  which  it  contains. 

Some  foods  are  less  favorable  than  others  to  repro- 
duction, because  they  are  ill-balanced.  An  exclusive  corn 
diet  is  too  highly  carbonaceous.  A  diet  consisting  entirely 
of  sorghum  is  even  more  harmful.  Other  foods  are  in  suf- 
ficient balance,  but  their  condition  is  too  dry.  Such  is  grass 
of  certain  kinds,  matured  and  dead.  Others  again  are  too 
watery.  Grass  young  and  watery  may  have  reasonable 
balance  in  its  constituents,  and  yet  be  too  watery,  as  when 
it  induces  a  condition  of  the  bowels  so  lax  as  to  be  unfa- 
vorable to  development  for  the  time  being.  Foods  in  rea- 
sonable balance  as  to  their  constituents,  possessed  of  ample 
nutrients  in  proportion  to  their  bulk  and  withal  succulent, 
but  not  watery,  are  the  most  favorable  to  breeding.  Thus 
it  is  that  cows  wintered  on  a  low  and  dry  diet  come  in 
heat  after  having  fed  for  a  long  enough  season  on  grasses 
succulent  and  nutritious.  It  also  explains  why  ewes  act 
similarly  which  have  reared  lambs  after  they  have  grazed 
for  a  short  season  on  well-grown  rape.  This  explains  also 
why  wild  animals  that  breed  once  a  year,  breed  only  at 
a  particular  season 

Any  food  that  is  possessed  of  the  desirable  nutrients 
and  that  has  a  reasonable  amount  of  succulence  when  fed 
with  sufficient  liberality  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
animal  will  have  the  effect  of  hastening  the  breeding 
impulse.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  food  that  tends 
to  build  up  the  system  stimulates  activity  in  all  the  func- 
tions of  the  same,  including  the  organs  of  reproduction. 
The  knowledge  of  this  fact  has  been  turned  to  practical 
account  by  the  stockman.  It  has  enabled  him  to  hasten 
the  mating  season  with  ewes  after  their  lambs  have  been 
weaned,  and  likewise  the  breeding  of  sows  from  which 
two  litters  are  sought  each  year.  It  enables  the  stock- 
man also  to  modify  the  season  for  breeding.  This  has 
proved  of  great  practical  service  in  connection  with  the 
breeding  of  cows. 


PREGNANCY   IN    ANIMALS  123 

Pregnancy  and  impregnation. — The -character  of  the 
food  fed  not  only  influences  the  season  for  mating,  but  it 
also  influences  what  may  be  termed  the  degree  of  the 
impregnation.  This  means  that  the  character  of  the  de- 
velopment in  utero  is  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  parents  at  the  time  of  mating.  It 
means  also  that  with  animals  which  produce  more  than 
one  at  a  birth,  the  relative  number  of  the  progeny  will  be 
influenced  by  the  same  condition. 

That  the  first  influence  referred  to  is  operative  has 
been  determined  by  observation.  Similarly  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  this  influence  extends  to  the  male,  how- 
soever the  female  impregnated  may  be  fed  subsequently. 
It  is  fair  to  infer,  therefore,  that  the  same  is  true  of  the 
influence  of  the  female  at  the  time  of  mating. 

But  it  would  seem  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
sum  of  the  influence  exerted  by  the  female  prior  to  the 
birth  period,  would  be  greater  than  that  from  the  male, 
not  in  determining  form  and  other  inherited  qualities,  but 
in  influencing  the  size  of  the  young  animal  or  animals 
when  born,  the  relative  degree  of  bone  and  muscle  pos- 
sessed, and  also  the  vigor  of  the  young  animal  at  that 
time  since  these  are  of  necessity  influenced  by  the  food 
fed  to  the  dam  while  the  foetus  is  in  process  of  de- 
velopment. 

.  That  the  condition  of  both  parents  at  the  time  of 
mating  does  influence  the  numbers  of  the  progeny  where 
more  than  one  is  very  commonly  produced  at  a  birth  has 
also  been  ascertained  by  observation.  If  either  parent  is 
reduced  in  physical  vigor,  whether  from  want  of  sufficient 
nourishment  or  from  excess  of  the  same,  the  influence  is 
adverse  to  relatively  numerous  progeny.  The  influence  of 
a  diet  lacking  in  succulence  acts  in  the  same  direction, 
though  sufficiently  nourishing.  These,  of  course,  are  not 
the  only  influences  that  affect  prolificacy,  but  they  are 
among  the  most  potent,  though  not  so  potent  as  inheri- 
tance. 


124  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  influence  thus  exerted  has  been  turned  to  good 
account,  more  especially  by  flockmasters  as  those  of  Great 
Britain.  As  the  breeding  season  approaches  they  exercise 
special  care  in  the  feeding  of  the  ram.  The  aim  is  to  give 
him  food  sufficiently  nourishing  and  succulent  to  Keep 
him  in  a  vigorous  and  "sappy"  condition.  Likewise  the 
ewes  are  put  upon  fresh  and  nourishing  pastures  two  or 
three  weeks  or  more  before  the  breeding  season.  Usually 
the  pastures  are  supplemented  with  a  small  allowance  of 
grain.  In  some  instances  the  pastures  are  sufficiently 
nourishing  without  grain,  as  for  instance  when  they  con- 
sist of  rape  well  advanced  in  growth.  Similarly  by  feeding 
brood  sows  nourishing  food  subsequently  to  the  weaning 
period,  and  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  before  weaning, 
it  has  been  noticed  that  the  numbers  in  the  litters  are 
increased.  The  duration  of  the  building-up  period,  so  to 
speak,  is  dependent  on  the  degree  of  the  flesh  carried. 

Pregnancy  and  food. — That  the  relation  between  the 
food  fed  and  the  character  of  the  development  in  utero  is 
both  intimate  and  close  is  witnessed  in  the  varied  results 
froxn  feeding  different  foods  to  pregnant  dams  of  the  same 
species.  When  the  carbohydrates  are  in  excess  in  the 
food,  the  development  of  muscle  is  so  far  less  than  it  would 
otherwise  be.  When  the  protein  is  in  excess,  the  muscular 
tissue  will  be  in  excess  at  the  time  of  birth,  hence  the 
progeny  though  large  when  born  are  much  liable  to  be 
flabby  and  weak.  When  the  ash  is  deficient,  the  relative 
proportion  of  bone  will  be  too  little  and  the  quality  of  the 
same  will  be  lacking. 

Feed  corn  for  instance  as  the  exclusive  diet  to  a  preg- 
nant sow  and  the  young  when  'born  will  be  less  in  size,  and 
possessed  of  less  bone  than  is  normal.  Corn  is  not  a  bal- 
anced food.  It  is  rich  in  carbohydrates  and  deficient  in 
ash.  Feed  clover  hay  to  pregnant  ewes  and  along  with  it 
large  quantities  of  rutabagas,  and  the  lambs  will  be  large 
at  birth  but  flabby  and  weak.  In  such  food  there  is  an 
excess  of  protein. 


PREGNANCY    IN    ANIMALS  125 

The  importance  of  feeding  foods  in  balance  and  suit- 
able in  kind  to  pregnant  animals  is  too  frequently  under- 
rated. When  it  is  not  thus  fed,  the  young  are  at  a  disad- 
vantage at  the  very  outset,  from  the  lack  of  equilibrium  in 
development.  Such  disadvantage  can  never  be  entirely 
overcome. 

The  danger  is  also  present  that  malformations  will 
be  more  numerous  when  ill-balanced  food  is  fed,  and  that 


TYPICAL   CHESTER   WHITE   SOW 

the  proportion  of  still-born  will  be  increased,  and  that 
troubles  will  multiply  at  the  time  of  parturition,  and  also 
that  the  newly  born  animals  will  call  for  more  careful 
attention  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary. 

Pregnancy  and  exercise. — That  ample  exercise  for 
pregnant  animals  is  essential  to  the  well  being  of  the 
progeny  has  been  abundantly  proved  in  the  realm  of  expe- 
rience. The  relation  between  the  amount  of  exercise  taken 
by  the  dam  when  not  excessive,  and  vigor  in  the  progeny 
when  born,  other  things  being  equal,  is  constant.  This 
accounts  for  the  much  greater  vigor  of  the  lambs  of  the 
Cheviot  and  Black-faced  Highland  breeds  of  sheep  dropped 
on  their  native  pastures,  as  compared  with  those  of  some 


126  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

of  the  large  breeds  when  kept  in  small  paddocks  during 
the  larger  portion  of  the  period  of  pregnancy.  The  for- 
mer are  not  easily  caught  when  but  a  few  hours  old,  the 
latter  frequently  call  for  special  attention  to  get  them  on 
their  feet. 

The"  amount  of  exercise  required  by  the  different 
classes  of  domestic  animals  when  pregnant  varies.  The 
mare  calls  for  even  more  than  the  ewe,  and  the  ewe  needs 
more  than  the  cow  and  the  brood  sow.  The  cow  will  bring 
forth  her  young  with  reasonable  safety  under  conditions  of 
confinement  that  would  prove  fatal  to  the  progeny  of  the 
breeding  mare.  Likewise  the  sow  will  produce  with  rea- 
sonable success  under  conditions  of  confinement  that  would 
prove  fatal  to  the  progeny  of  the  ewe.  The  importance  of 
this  question  is  such  as  to  encourage  the  efforts  of  stock 
growers  to  increase  the  exercise  taken  by  pregnant  dams 
under  confined  conditions  in  winter.  This  may  be  done 
by  enforcing  labor  in  the  case  of  mares  and  by  compelling 
other  dams  to  take  some  exercise  by  changing  the  condi- 
tions of  feeding.  ' 

Milch  cows  will  breed  with  reasonable  success  under 
conditions  of  close  confinement  in  winter  providing  they 
have  access  to  the  pastures  in  summer.  The  confinement 
may  be  as  close  as  restriction  to  the  stall  and  its  stanchion 
or  tie  chain.  Notwithstanding,  the  stamina  of  the  progeny  at 
birth  is  less  than  that  of  calves  from  cows  which  have  some 
daily  yard  exercise,  and  the  stamina  of  calves  from  the  latter 
at  birth  is  less  than  that  of  calves  born  on  pastures  months 
subsequently  to  the  commencement  of  the  grazing  season. 

Pregnancy  and  good  flesh. — That  a  reasonably  high 
condition  of  flesh  rightly  put  on  previous  to  or  during 
pregnancy  is  in  no  way  detrimental  to  successful  breeding, 
but  rather  the  opposite,  is  capable  of  easy  demonstration.  It 
is  sustained  by  theoretical  principles,  the  soundness  of 
which  cannot  be  shaken,  and  by  the  results  of  practical 
experience,  notwithstanding  that>  the  opposite  view  is  still 
held  by  some  breeders. 


PREGNANCY    IN    ANIMALS  I2/ 

The  dam  of  course  must  nourish  the  foetus  from  the 
time  of  impregnation.  The  nourishment  comes  through 
the  circulatory  system.  The  circulation  is  sustained  from 
the  food  digested.  It  stands  to  reason  that  as  soon  a> 
conception  has  taken  place,  a  part  of  the  nutriment  from 
the  food  eaten  is  diverted  from  the  dam,  who  would  other- 
wise profit  by  it,  to  the  foetus  which  she  carries.  If  she 
is  in  a  condition  of  reasonably  high  flesh  at  the  time  jof  con- 
ception, she  will  not  suffer  by  such  diversion,  but  if  in 
low  flesh  at  such  a  time  then  the  opportunity  to  build  up 
the  system  and  thus  to  fortify  it  against  the  drain  which 
the  milk-giving  period  entails  is  so  far  taken  away.  It  is 
true  of  course,  that  a  dam  in  low  condition  at  the  time  of 
conception  may  be  so  built  up  as  to  be  in  good  flesh  at 
the  time  of  parturition. 

Of  course,  it  is  easily  possible  to  have  the  dam  in  so 
high  a  condition  of  flesh  at  the  time  of  mating  as  to  be 
unfavorable  to  conception.  It  would  also  be  possible  to 
sustain  her  in  a  condition  of  flesh  so  high  as  to  be  unfa- 
vorable to  the  development  of  the  foetus.  Such  difficulty 
is  met  with  in  the  management  of  females  shown  at  fairs 
which  are  grown  chiefly  for  producing  meat.  The  progeny 
of  such  females  are  in  many  instances  less  than  average 
in  size  at  birth.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
for  one  animal  too  high  in  flesh  at  the  time  of  conception 
and  during  pregnancy  for  the  best  results,  there  are  many 
animals  too  low  in  flesh  for  the  same. 

When  pregnant  animals  carry  flesh,  to  the  extent  of 
proving  adverse  to  successful  breeding,  it  will  usually  be 
found  that  the  adverse  results  are  owing  more  to  the 
unsuitable  character  of  the  food  which  made  the  flesh  than 
to  the  high  condition  of  flesh.  The  influence  of  high  flesh 
made  by  feeding  carbonaceous  foods,  such  as  corn  and 
fodders  lacking  in  succulence  though  rich  in  nutrients,  is 
very  different  from  that  exerted  by  the  same  resulting 
from  feeding  foods  in  balance  and  withal  succulent.  The 
same  j.s  true  of  course  of  the  influence  exerted  by  foods 


128  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

on  development  in  ntero.  if  a  dam  in  low  flesh  at  concep- 
tion is  brought  into  high  flesh  before  the  time  of  parturi- 
tion by  feeding  foods  highly  carbonaceous,  such  foods  will 
be  adverse  to  development  in  the  foetus.  The  same  con- 
dition of  flesh  can  be  attained  by  feeding  succulent  foods 
in  balance  without  injury  to  the  foetus,  but  a  longer  time 
is  required  to  produce  such  a  result. 

The  extent  to  which  nutriment  in  the  food  will  be  di- 
verted from  the  dam  to  the  foetus  is  not  governed  alone 
by  the  character  of  the  food.  Two  dams  of  the  same  breed 
may  be  fed  the  same  kind  of  food  when  pregnant  and  one 
will  nourish  the  foetus  much  better  than  the  other,  though 
all  the  conditions  are  the  same.  One  female  with  suitable 
food  will  increase  in  flesh  but  at  the  expense  of  the  progeny, 
as  evidenced  in  small  size  at  birth.  Another  female  under 
like  conditions  will  not  increase  in  flesh,  but  will  produce 
a  robust  progeny  of  large  size  at  birth.  The  reasons  for 
such  variations  are  not  well  understood,  but  it  is  probable 
that  habit  in  digestion,  the  result  of  inheritance  and  also 
the  character  of  the  feeding  previous  to  the  first  conception, 
exert  an  important  influence. 

Pregnancy  and  nursing. — That  dams  in  good  flesh  at 
the  time  of  parturition  can  nourish  their  young  better  than 
if  in  low  flesh  .is  proved  by  observation  and  by  general 
experience.  So  constantly  do  such  results  follow  that  they 
cannot  be  gainsaid,  even  by  those  who  are  opposed  to  the 
idea  of  much  flesh  in  the  dam  when  her  young  are  born. 

When  a  dam  produces  progeny  while  she  is  low  in 
flesh,  the  drain  upon  the  system  is  such  in  nourishing  her 
young,  that  howsoever  she  may  be  fed,  she  will  scarcely 
be  able  to  maintain  her  weight.  It  is  more  than  probable 
that  she  will  lose  rather  than  gain.  The  more  freely  that 
she  produces  milk,  the  more  probable  is  it  that  she  will 
lose  rather  than  increase  her  flesh.  The  food  that  she 
furnishes-  to  her  young  must  come  almost  entirely  from 
the  food  which  she  eats.  Suppose  the  same  dam  had  been 
in  good  flesh  at  the  time  of  parturition,  and  that  the  extra 


PREGNANCY    IN    ANIMALS  129 

flesh  she  carried  had  been  made  from  suitable  foods,  she 
would  then  have  been  possessed  of  a  reserve  supply  as  it 
were  from  which  to  nourish  her  young  in  addition  to  the 
milk  produced  from  the  food  fed.  As  in  the  former  in- 
stance she  would  lose  flesh  but  not  to  anything  like  the  same 
degree,  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  reserve  in  flesh.  Her 
young,  therefore,  would  be  nourished  not  only  by  milk,  but 
by  the  reserve  food  in  her  system  transformed  into  milk. 
In  the  second  instance,  therefore,  she  would  certainly 
nourish  her  young  much  better  than  in  the  first  instance. 
While  doing  so,  she  would  be  possessed  of  greater  vigor 
than  in  the  first  instance,  and  this  would  have  a  favorable 
bearing  on  the  processes  of  digestion. 

The  advantages  from  maintaining  a  good  condition  of 
flesh  in  pregnant  animals,  therefore,  include  the  following : 
(i)  THey  have  a  reserve  fund  stored  in  the  system  which 
is  drawn  upon  for  the  advantage  of  the  young  after  they 
are  born;  (2)  they  are  possessed  of  more  vigor  which  is 
turned  to  good  account  in  the  processes  of  digesting  and 
assimilating  the  large  amounts  of  food  fed;  (3)  they  are 
much  less  liable  to  reach  that  low  condition  of  flesh  which 
is  not  favorable  to  high  production  or  profitable  breeding. 

Abundant  flesh,  however,  produced  by  food  highly  car- 
bonaceous in  character,  would  be  unfavorable  to  impregna- 
tion, and  if  maintained  subsequently  by  feeding  similar 
food,  would  also  be  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  the 
foetus  and  to  the  proper  feeding  of  the  young  animal  when 
born.  Such  foods  fed  freely  to  dams  in  low  condition  when 
their  young  are  born,  will  aid  in  maintaining  fresh  in  them, 
but  at  the  expense  of  the  progeny,  as  such  food  is  not 
favorable  to  milk-giving. 


Or  THE 

|    UNIVERSITY 


ER3ITY  ) 

r     r   ;v|  ^  ^  ^r 


PART  II. 

Having  discussed  the  leading  principles  that  govern 
feeding  in  Part  I,  it  is  now  in  order  to  discuss  in  Part  II 
the  value  of  type  in  the  animals  to  be  fed,  and  the  princi- 
ples that  govern  the  actual  feeding  of  the  foods  with  refer- 
ence to  adaptation  to  age  and  class.  The  principles  that 
govern  feeding  will  not  avail  unless  the  foods  are  fed  to  an- 
imals of  at  least  measurably  correct  form  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  fed.  Nor  will  these  avail  unless 
the  rations  used  are  given  in  at  least  approximate  accord 
with  the  principles  that  govern  the  actual  feeding  of  the 
foods.  Chapter  IX,  therefore,  will  discuss  the  value  of 
type  in  domestic  animals  and  Chapter  X,  the  principles 
that  govern  the  feeding  of  foods. 


131 


CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  VALUE  OF  TYPE  IN  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Type  may  be  defined  as  another  name  for  form  or 
conformation.  But  it  differs  from  these  in  that,  when  used, 
it  has  reference  to  form  or  conformation,  bearing  upon 
adaptation  to  a  certain  end,  whereas  these  terms  apply  to 
conformation  in  the  abstract.  In  the  strict  sense  it  applies: 
(i)  To  conformation  within  the  breed  rather  than  to  con- 
formation within  the  class  to  which  the  breed  belongs. 
For  instance,  the  class  cattle  embraces  many  breeds.  These 
differ  from  one  another  in  form,  hence  they  differ  from  one 
another  in  type.  But  within  some  of  the  breeds  are  cer- 
tain strains  or  families  possessed  in  common  of  peculiarities 
of  form.  In  Shorthorn  cattle,  there  are  the  Bates,  Booth 
and  Cruikshank  strains.  Each  of  these  constitutes  a  type 
which  differs  from  the  others  in  certain  points  of  conforma- 
tion, hence  these  differ  from  one  another  in  type;  (2)  to 
conformation  within  the  class  as  determined  by  classifica- 
tion, or,  to  be  more  exact,  as  making  classification  possible. 
For  instance,  within  the  species  cattle  are  known  as  the 
beef,  dairy  and  dual  purpose  classes.  Each  of  these  em- 
braces several  breeds,  and  also  many  animals  of  mixed 
breeding,  possessed  of  certain  peculiarities  in  form  in  com- 
mon, with  reference  to  a  certain  end,  notwithstanding  other 
peculiarities  of  form  in  which  they  differ.  Hence,  they  are 
also  spoken  of  as  beef,  dairy  and  dual  purpose  types;  (3)  to 
animals  possessed  of  certain  peculiarities  of  form  which 
stand  out  more  prominently  than  other  peculiarities  but 
without  reference  to  breed  or  grade,  as  when  cattle  are 
referred  to  as  being  of  the  low-down,  blocky,  or  of  the 
longer  limbed  and  more  rangy  form.  They  are  then  com- 
monly referred  to  as  possessed  of  the  blocky  and  rangy 
types  respectively. 

133 


134  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Type  is  valuable  as  an  indicator  of  utility  or  adaptation 
for  a  certain  end.  Peculiarities  of  form  in  horses  indicate 
capacity  for  speed  or  labor  respectively,  or  for  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two.  In  cattle  these  indicate  capacity  for 
meat  or  milk,  or  for  a  combination  of  the  two.  In  sheep 
they  indicate  capacity  for  mutton  or  wool  production,  and  in 
swine  for  producing  meat  of  a  certain  quality.  In  a  sense 
less  pronounced,  it  is  an  indicator  of  breeding  qualities,  of 
general  ruggedness  or  weakness,  and  of  feeding  capacity. 
But  its  chief  value  lies  in  what  it  indicates  with  reference 
to  capacity  for  production,  as  of  meat,  milk,  wool,  speed 
or  labor. 

Type,  however,  as  an  indicator  of  utility  or  adaptation 
is  to  be  taken  as  a  general,  rather  than  as  an  absolute  guide. 
In  a  general  sense,  it  is  an  infallible  guide.  For  instance, 
when  a  cow  is  possessed  of  pronounced  dairy  form,  it  is 
also  known  that  she  is  possessed  of  far  higher  adaptation 
for  producing  milk  than  for  producing  meat.  But  this  ex- 
act degree  of  her  capacity  for  milk  production  cannot  be 
known  in  the  absence  of  actual  proof,  the  result  of  perfor- 
mance. Hence,  it  is,  that  no  judge  living  can  go  into  an  ex- 
hibit of  dairy  cattle,  all  the  individuals  of  which  are  high 
performers,  and  tell  to  a  certainty  which  stand  highest  in 
actual  milk  production..  So  it  is  with  performance  in  all 
lines  and  with  all  classes  of  live  stock.  This  is  owing  to 
the  bearing  which  other  qualifying  influences  have  on  pro- 
duction; such  as  habit,  use,  training,  and  also  to  the  wis- 
dom previously  exercised  in  the  application  of  the  various 
known  influences  that  have  a  bearing  on  development  in 
performance  or  production. 

Type  should  be  sought  in  the  highest  degree  obtain- 
able in  the  line  of  what  it  indicates,  providing  it  is  not  car- 
ried to  that  point  where  it  begins  to  react  prejudicially 
upon  properties  co-related  and  essential  to  highest  perform- 
ance or  production  in  the  direction  sought.  For  instance, 
should  ranginess  in  the  running  horse  be  sought  to  the  ex- 
tent of  weakening  staying  power,  the  type  thus  sought  is 


TYPE   IN  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  135 

extreme.  The  same  is  true  of  dairy  type  that  carries  light- 
ness and  spareness  of  form  to  the  extent  of  undue  narrow- 
ness in  the  chest  and  hind  quarters,  of  mutton  type  that 
carries  blockiness  to  the  extreme,  which  is  prejudicial  to 
breeding,  and  of  bacon  type  which  carries  length  of  body 
so  far  as  to  produce  unprofitable  feeders. 

Type  is  the  basis  on  which  rests  the  classification  of 
breeds  with  reference  to  production  or  performance.  To 
be  more  precise,  it  is  the  interpreter  of  the  indications  of 
that  utility  on  which  classification  rests.  It  divides  cattle 
into  the  beef,  dairy  and  dual  purpose  classes ;  sheep,  in  a 
general  way,  into  mutton  and  wool-producing  classes ;  swine, 
into  producers  of  lard  and  bacon,  that  is,  fat  and  lean  pork ; 
and  horses  into  draught,  light  and  general  purpose  classes. 
Each  of  the  individual  breeds  within  the  class  is  also  char- 
acterized by  its  own  distinguishing  type  features. 

It  is  very  evident,  therefore,  that  if  food  is  to  be  util- 
ized to  the  greatest  extent  possible,  this  can  only  result 
when  it  is  fed  to  animals  possessed  of  the  correct  type  for 
the  end  sought.  To  feed  food  to  animals  possessed  of  pro- 
nounced beef  type  in  the  hope  of  securing  a  high  return  in 
milk  would  be  in  vain,  and  vice* versa.  To  feed  food  in 
harmony  with  correct  type  for  the  ends  sought  is  positively 
fundamental,  or  these  ends  will  not  be  obtained.  This 
necessity  has  the  strength  of  law  as  shown  in  Chapter  III. 

To  aid  the  student  and  indeed  any  who  may  desire  to 
get  a  correct  knowledge  of  form  or  type,  what  are  termed 
"standards  of  excellence"  have  been  drawn  up  for  the 
various  breeds,  as  such,  and  also  for  the  various  types, 
grouped  with  reference  to  adaptation  to  a  certain  end.  In 
some  instances,  these  standards  are  known  by  the  designa- 
tion "scale  of  points"  and  in  others  by  the  term  "score 
cards."  The  scale  of  points  is  so  designated  because  a  cer- 
tain value  is  affixed  to  each  expressed  requisite  relating 
to  form,  singly  or  taken  in  groups,  and  stated  in  figures. 
The  sum  of  these  for  each  standard  is  100,  which  indicates 
perfection.  The  score  card  is  simply  a  scale  of  points, 


136  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

usually  condensed  in  the  terms  in  which  it  is  expressed. 
It  is  intended  to  show  the  student  the  relative  value  of 
each  particular  factor  or  requisite  of  form,  but  it  is  not 
adapted  for  use  in  the  show  ring,  because  of  the  time  con- 
sumed in  using  it  thus.  When  judging  by  the  score  card 
blank  spaces  for  the  numerals  are  filled  in  by  the  student, 
according  to  his  judgment  of  the  merits  of  the  various 
points  of  the  animal  which  he  is  judging,  and  the  sum  of 
these  indicates  his  judgment  of  the  standing  of  the  animal 
in  relation  to  perfection. 

These  standards,  as  usually  drawn  up,  are  intended 
and  very  properly  so,  to  indicate  the  perfect  animal  of  its 
kind  or  class.  In  some  instances,  indications  of  function 
are  also  given  as  well  as  those  of  form.  It  is  very  evident, 
however,  that  correct  form  in  the  same  animal  will  apply 
very  differently,  at  least  in  some  phases  thereof,  according 
as  the  animal  is  in  high  flesh,  moderately  high  flesh,  or  lean. 
This  means  that  the  standard  of  perfection  for  meat-mak- 
ing animals  in  good  flesh  as  given  in  the  standards,  will 
not  furnish  a  sufficient  guide  for  the  person  who  is  select- 
ing animals  for  feeding.  For  instance,  the  standard  for  the 
beef  cattle  beast  in  good  flesh  calls  for  full  crops.  Should 
the  animal  be  lower  in  flesh,  the  crops  will  not  be  full,  and 
so  of  various  other  points  of  conformation.  But  the  meas- 
ure of  fulness  in  the  crops  of  lean  animals  varies  greatly, 
and  the  ability  to  distinguish  between  these,  so  as  to  know 
whether  future  good  feeding  will  fill  the  crops  or  not,  and 
how  far  it  will  fill  them,  is  of  great  moment  to  those  en- 
gaged in  producing  meat.  The  ability  to  judge  animals 
prospectively  with  reference  to  future  development  is  much 
more  rare  than  ability  to  judge  the  standing  of  the  finished 
animal.  Cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  purchased  with  a  view  to 
growing  or  fattening  them,  or  for  both  uses,  are  usually 
purchased  while  in  moderate,  or  even  in  a  low  condition  of 
flesh.  To  purchase  these  on  the  basis  of  standards  drawn 
up  to  represent  the  animal  in  perfect  condition  as  to  flesh, 
would  be  misleading. 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  137 

In  the  hope  of  furnishing  more  exact  guides  to  those 
who  single  out  animals  for  future  feeding,  or  who  purchase 
them  for  the  same,  feeding  standards  will  be  submitted, 
which  are  intended  to  show  the  leading  essentials  of  form 
which  such  animals  should  possess.  This,  however,  will  not 
be  necessary  in  the  case  of  animals  not  kept  primarily  for 
growing  meat,  as  dairy  cattle  and  horses.  As  these  are 
supposed  to  be  maintained  simply  in  that  moderate  condi- 
tion of  flesh  most  favorable  to  production  of  milk  in  the  one 
instance  and  of  labor  in  the  other,  the  necessity  for  two 
classes  of  standards  for  these  does  not  exist  as  in  the  case 
of  animals  grown  for  the  block.  Type  will  now  be  con- 
sidered in  its  relation  to  cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  horses 
respectively. 

Type  in  its  relation  to  cattle. — Type  with  reference 
to  production,  as  already  intimated,  divides  cattle  into  the 
beef,  dairy  and  dual  purpose  breeds.  The  recognized  beef 
breeds  in  America  are,  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen 
Angus  and  Galloway  breeds.  The  vast  majority  of  high 
class  animals  suitable  for  the  best  productions  of  meat  are 
grades  of  these,  which  means  that  they  are  the  progeny  of 
sires  of  one  of  these  pure  breeds,  and  of  females  of  common 
or  mixed  breeding.  The  dairy  breeds  are  the  Holstein, 
Dutch  Belted,  Ayrshire,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  French  Canadian 
and  Kerry.  Likewise,  the  great  majority  of  good  dairy 
cows  in  the  country  are  grades  of  these,  more  especially  of 
the  Holstein,  Ayrshire,  Guernsey  and  Jersey  breeds.  The 
higher  sthe  grade,  both  in  the  case  of  beef  and  dairy  cattle, 
that  is,  the  greater  the  number  of  the  successive  generations 
of  straight  breeding  from  sires  of  one  breed,  the  more 
valuable  are  the  animals  likely  to  be,  up  to  a  certain  limit, 
for  the  ends  for  which  they  are  kept.  The  dual  purpose 
breeds  are,  the  milking  Shorthorn,  the  Brown  Swiss,  the 
Red  Poll  and  the  Devon.  The  bulk  of  dual  purpose  an- 
imals are  not  confined  to  the  high  grades  of  these  breeds, 
but  as  found  at  present  are  composed  of  various  blood  ele- 
ments, in  many  instances,  blended  without  much  system. 


138 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


But  they  are  produced  with  much  more  certainty  and  satis- 
faction as  the  direct  progeny  within  dual  purpose  breeds 
or  high  grades  of  these. 

Type  in  cattle  for  feeding. — The  standards  of  perfec- 
tion not  only  for  beef  cattle  but  for  each  of  the  recognized 
pure  breeds  in  America,  and  also  for  each  of  the  pure 
breeds  of  sheep,  swine  and  horses,  are  intended  to  repre- 
sent what  these  should  be  in  the  perfected  form.  A  correct 


SELECTED    STEER    FOR    FEEDING 
[By  courtesy  of  the  owner,  111.   Exper.   StaJ 

knowledge  of  the  standard  for  any  breed  is  invaluable  to 
the  person  engaged  in  breeding  the  same.  These  stand- 
ards are  given  in  the  "Study  of  Breeds"  written  by  the 
author.  But  the  standard  for  the  guidance  of  the  breeder, 
as  already  intimated,  in  the  case  of  animals  designed  for 
the  block,  is  not  the  same  as  that  for  the  feeder.  For  the 
guidance  of  the  latter,  therefore,  when  selecting  cattle, 
sheep  and  swine,  standards  for  these  respective  classes  of 


TYPE  IN  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  139 

animals  will  be  submitted,  each  in  its  proper  place.     That 
for  cattle  is  as  follows : — 

Principal  points  in  cattle  for  feeding. 

1.  Uniformity. — They  should  be  selected  with  a  view 
to  uniformity  in  breeding,  size  and  quality. 

2.  Sise. — At  least  medium  for  the  age  and  breed. 

3.  General  Outline. — The  body  should  be  moderate  In 
length,  with  good  depth  and  width,  and  not  high  from  the 
ground. 

4.  Head. — Of  medium  size,  short,  broad  and  clean  cut. 
(a),  Forehead,  broad, 

(b),  Muzzle,  large,  broad  and  moist, 

(c),  Nostrils,  large  and  expansive, 

(d),  Eyes,  large,  full,  clear,  calm, 

(e),  Horns,  of  medium  size  and  good  texture  and 

oval  in  shape, 

(f),  Ears,  of  medium  size,  short  and  broad  for  the 

breed,  carried  firmly  and  not  unduly  active. 

5.  Neck. — Moderately  short,  with  indications  of  good 
muscling  as  shown  in  depth  and  thickness. 

6.  Back. — Straight  from  base  of  neck  to  tail-head,  width 
and  levelness  depending  somewhat  on  condition  as  to  flesh, 
and  having  large  loin  area. 

7.  Fore  quarters. — Wide  and  deep,  fulness  in  front,  also 
width  and  levelness  at  withers,  depending  largely  on  the 
flesh  carried. 

(a),  Shoulders (  broad,  front  and  top  shoulder  points 
not   too   prominent,   smoothness   of   shoulder   being 
largely  dependent  on  the  amount  of  flesh  present, 
(b),  Chest,  capacious, 

(c),  Breast,  broad  and  deep,  fulness  depending  on 
flesh  carried,. 

(d),  Brisket,  broad  but  breadth  is  dependent  largely 
on  condition, 

(e),  Arm,  broad  at  elbow,  well  muscled,  and  taper- 
ing markedly  toward  the  knee. 


14°  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

8.  Barrel  or  coupling — Large,  wide  and  deep. 

(a),  Ribs,   good   outward   spring  and   good   length, 

well  spread  apart  and  well  muscled, 

(b),    Crops,  full  preferably,  but  fulness  is  dependent 

largely  on  condition, 

(c),   Foreflank,  deep  and  moderately  full, 

(d),   Hindflank,  deep, 

(e),  Barrel  depression,  but  moderate  in  size, 

(f),   Underline,  straight  or  nearly  so, 

(g),  Girth,  good  around  flank  and  heart  and  about 

equal. 

9.  Hind  quarters. — Long,  deep  and  wide, 
(a),    Hips,  broad  cuid  well  muscled, 

(b),  Rump  area,  large  and  broad  from  loin  to  tail- 
head  and  the  more  level  the  better, 
(c),  Pin  bones,  wide  apart  and  placed  on  a  level  or 
nearly  so  with  the  loin, 
(d),  Thigh,  broad  and  well  muscled, 
(e),  Twist,  low. 

10.  Legs. — Both  before  and    behind,    short,    straight, 
and  set  well  anart  with  bone  of  fairly  good  size  and  qual- 
ity. 

11.  Handling  qualities. — 

(a),  Skin  of  moderate  thickness  and  covered  with  a 
fair  amount  of  hair, 

(b),  Pliability  of  skin  and  softness  of  coat  are  de- 
pendent chiefly  on  conditions  relating  to  food  and 
flesh. 

Points  especially  objectionable. — These  include,  prob- 
ably in  the  order  named,  a  narrow  chest,  a  long,  slim  head 
and  neck,  flat  ribs,  a  small  loin  and  rump  area,  and  a  rough 
shoulder  and  hook  points. 

Reasons  may  be  given  in  minute  detail  why  these  in- 
dications of  form  and  function  should  be  present.  But  to 
give  them  in  connection  with  each  of  the  standards  sub- 
mitted would  unduly  swell  the  contents  of  the  book.  For 
the  fuller  study  of  these,  the  reader  is  referred  to  "Animal 


TYPE   IN  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  14! 

Breeding,"  more  especially  the  chapter  therein  on  "Animal 
Form  an  Index  of  Qualities."  However,  as  standards  in 
previous  works  by  the  author  have  not  been  submitted  re- 
lating to  the  proper  furnishings  of  animals  selected  for 
feeding,  the  following  brief  explanations  will  be  in  order : — 
Uniformity  is  important  because  of  its  bearing  upon  even- 
ness in  quality  and  attractiveness  and  through  these  on 
price.  Size  has  an  important  bearing  upon  future  possible 
increase.  The  head  and  neck  indicate  in  various  ways  ca- 
pacity for  development  and  the  character  and  quality  of 
the  same.  The  back  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
character  and  hence  upon  the  value  of  high-priced  meat. 
The  development  of  the  fore  quarters  influences  weight, 
and  indicates  measurably  the  degree  of  the  stamina.  The 
barrel  development  indicates  capacity  for  food  consumption, 
in  its  relation  to  possible  production.  The  hind  quarters 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  weight  of  relatively  high- 
priced  meat.  Legs  short,  straight  and  wide  apart,  usually 
sustain  compact  and  wide  bodies.  Handling  qualities  indi- 
cate the  character  of  the  digestion  and  more  especially  of 
the  assimilation  of  food.  The  carriage  is  an  indication  of 
health,  vigor  and  disposition. 

Development  in  the  framework  of  all  immature  animals 
must  continue  until  maturity,  hence,  the  fattening  of  young 
animals  carries  on  development  of  the  frame  but  in  a  less 
degree  relatively  than  of  the  flesh.  In  animals  more  ma- 
ture, the  development  relates  mainly  to  the  clothing  of  the 
framework  with  flesh  and  fat  and  in  those  mature  entirely 
so.  In  the  latter,  therefore,  fattening  affects  only  in  a 
slight  degree  the  head  in  all  its  essentials,  the  chest  capacity 
and  the  size  of  the  limbs.  With  reference  to  the  head,  chest 
and  limbs,  therefore,  the  standards  for  the  unfinished 
and  finished  animals  are  virtually  the  same.  But  in  various 
other  respects,  the  difference  is  marked. 

Prominent  among  those  differences  are  the  follow- 
ing:— (i)  In  the  finished  animal  the  entire  body  becomes 
more  massive  and  the  carriage  more  labored;  (2)  the  neck 


142  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

vein  is  more  filled,  the  back  is  wider  and  more  level,  the 
breast  is  fuller,  the  brisket  is  wider,  the  fore  flank  becomes 
fuller  and  the  hind  flank  thicker,  the  crops  become  fuller 
and  the  thighs  incfease  within  and  without;  (3)  the  cover- 
ing of  the  parts  usually  bare,  or  nearly  so,  in  the  lean  animal, 
as  the  shoulder  blade  and  loin  is  increased;  (4)  the  points 
prominent  in  the  lean  animal,  as  the  shoulder  points,  hooks, 


AAGGIE  CORNUCOPIA  PAULINE 

World's     Champion    Holstein    seven-day    butter    cow    with    her 
owner  and  breeder,  H.  D.  Roe.    Record  34  Ibs.  5.2  ozs. 
[Photo  by  Prof.   W.   G.  Johnson.] 

and  pin  bones,  become  less  so,  in  some  instances,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  being  hidden  and  (5)  the  skin  often  somewhat  harsh 
and  adherent  over  the  ribs  in  the  lean  animal,  becomes 
much  more  pliant  and  loose,  and  the  hair  increases  in  mos- 
siness an  brightness. 

Type  in  dairy  cattle. — With  dairy  cattle  the  leading 
indications  of  form  and  function  are  essentially  the  same  in 
all  breeds  and  grades,  from  the  time  that  the  cow  first 


TYPE   IN  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  143 

comes  in  milk  until  she  is  sent  to  the  shambles.  Even  be- 
fore lactation  begins,  the  indications  are  virtually  the 
same,  except  that  in  the  heifer  not  yet  in  milk,  the  inclina- 
tion to  paunchiness  in  barrel  is  not  so  pronounced,  and  the 
milk  veins  are  not  so  large,  as  they  develop  with  age  and 
use,  and  the  udder  is  not  sufficiently  developed  to  furnish 
the  opportunity  for  properly  judging  of  the  character  of  its 
glandular  development.  The  one  standard,  therefore,  will 
suffice  for  dairy  cows,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  capac- 
ity for  production.  The  variations  arising  from  breed  pe- 
culiarities may  be  found  from  the  standards  for  the  respec- 
tive dairy  breeds  given  in  the  "Study  of  Breeds." 

Indications  of  correct  form  and  function  in  dairy  cows. 

1.  Size. — Medium  to  large  for  the  breed  or  grade. 

2.  General    outline. — What    is    known    as    the    triple 
wedge-shaped  formation,  which  means, 

(a),  Increasing  width  from  the  withers  downward, 
(b),  Increasing  width  toward  the  rear  parts, 
(c),  Some  increase  in  distance  between  the  top  and 
bottom  lines  as  they  go  backward. 

3.  Head. — Medium  to  fine,   clean   cut,   and   relatively 
.onger,  lighter  and  more  dished  than  in  the  beef  breeds. 

(a),  Forehead,  broad  and  dishing, 

(b),  Nose,  fine, 

(c),  Muzzle,  medium  to  broad  and  moist, 

(d),  Nostrils,  large  and  open, 

(e),  Cheeks,  clean  and  spare, 

(f),  Eyes,  prominent  and  lively, 

(g),  Poll,  medium  to  wide,  according  to  breed, 

(h),  Horns,  fine, 

(i),  Ears,   medium   with  ample   secretions,   thinner 

than  in  the  beef  breeds  and  somewhat  livelier. 

4.  Neck. — Inclining  to  long  and  light,  almost  slim, 
(a),  It  should  be  fine  at  the  junction  of  the  head 
and  should  widen  and  deepen  only  gradually, 


144  FEEDIXC,    FARM    ANIMALS 

(b),  The  junction  with  the  body  should  be  well  de- 
fined, almost  abrupt  in  character. 

5.  Back. — Narrow  at  the  withers,  wide  at  the  loin,  and 
at  least   moderately   so  at  the   pin  bones,  and   straight  or 
swayed  according  to  individuality. 

(a),  A  straight  back  is  to  be  preferred,  other  things 
being  equal, 

(b),  The  spinal  column  should  be  large,  well  de- 
fined and  open  spaced, 

(c),  There  should  be  more  or  less  downward  slope 
from  the  crupper  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  hip. 

6.  Fore  quarters. — Lighter  than  the  hind  quarters  and 
spare. 

(a),  Withers,   narrow, 

(b),  Shoulders,  not  heavy,  pronounced  in  their  up- 
ward slope  toward  one  another,  and  more  or  less 
abrupt  in  front, 

(c),  Chest,  wide  through  the  heart  and  capacious, 
(d),  Breast,  wide  below,  but  not  prominent, 
(e),  Brisket,  wedge-shaped, 
(f),  Arm,  inclining  to  light. 

7.  Barrel. — Long,  deep,  capacious,  in  a  sense  paunchy, 
(a),  Ribs,  broad,  wide-spaced,  with  a  deep,  down- 
ward and  outward  spring,  and  much  space  between 
the  last  rib  and  hook  point, 

(b),  Crops,  steep,  but  not  necessarily  depressed, 

(c),  Fore  flanks,  fairly  well  filled, 

(d),  Hind  flanks,  thin  but  not  sunken, 

(e),  Underline,  more  or  less  sagged, 

(f),  Girth,  at  least  fairly  good  around  the  heart,  and 

increasingly  so  at  the  hind  flank. 

8.  Hind  quarters. — Long,  but  varying  somewhat  in  the 
breeds,  wide  at  top  of  the  hips  and  coming  well  down,  but 
without  fulness. 

(a),  Hips,  not  heavy,  but  more  heavy  in  some  breeds, 
(b),  Thighs,  inclining  to  light,  thin  and  more  or 
less  incurved, 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


145 


(c),  Buttock,  upright  or  receding  somewhat  to- 
ward the  thigh, 

(d),  Pin  bones,  prominent  and  wide-spaced, 
(e),  Twist,  open,  placed  high,  and  roomy, 
(f),  Tail,  not  coarse,  tapering,  of  good  length,  and 
hanging  at  right  angles  to  the  back. 

9.  Escutcheon. — Well     defined     and     well     developed 
from  the  perineum  to  the   udder   and   extending   well   out- 
ward on  the  thighs. 

(a),  Breadth  below  the  perineum  is  said  to  denote 
prolonged  milking  qualities, 

(b),  Width  at  the  thighs  is  said  to  indicate  deep 
milking  qualites. 

10.  Udder. — Long,    broad    and    deep,    extending   well 
forward  and  well  up  behind,  and  evenly  quartered. 

(a),  It  should  be  well  let  down,  but  not  pendulous, 
and  the  skin  should  hang  in  loose  folds  behind  when 
the  udder  is  empty, 

(b),  In  quality  it  should  be  fine  and  elastic,  glan- 
dular, not  fleshy, 

(c),  The  hair  on  the  udder  should  be  soft  and  not 
plentiful, 

(d),  The  veins  on  the  same  well  defined, 
(e),  The  teats  of  medium  size  and  squarely  placed 
or  pointing  slightly  outward. 

11.  Milk  veins. — Large,  tortuous,  preferably  branched 
and  entering  the  abdominal  wall,  well  forward  and  through 
large  orifices,  usually  called  milk  wells. 

(a),  More  commonly  there  are  but  two  milk  wells, 
but  more  are  much  prized, 

(b),  The  veins  increase  in  size  with  advancing  age 
in  the  animal. 

12.  Legs. — Medium  in     length,     fine     in     bone     and 
straight,  at  least  fairly  wide  apart  and  yet  well  under  the 
body. 


146  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

13.  Skin. — Medium  to  fine,  finer     than  in     the     beef 
breeds,  easily  movable,  and  covered  plentifully  with  fine, 
soft  hair. 

14.  General     appearance. — The     carriage     should     be 
active,  the  prominences  at  the  angles  and  also  the  ribs  dis- 
tinctly apparent,  and  there  should  be  evidences  of  a  ten- 
dency to  spareness  in  form  when  in  milk. 

Given  in  summary  the  more  important  indications 
in  a  good  dairy  cow  and  important  perhaps  in  the  order 
given  are  the  following: — 

( I )  Much  length  and  depth  in  the  barrel  or  coupling, 
indicating  a  large  consumption  and  utilization  of  food;  (2) 
refinement  of  form,  as  evidenced  more  particularly  in  the 
head,  neck,  withers,  thighs  and  limbs;  (3)  good  develop- 
ment of  udder  and  milk  veins;  (4)  constitution,  as  in- 
dicated by  a  capacious  chest,  much  width  through  the 
heart,  a  broad  loin,  a  full,  clear  eye,  and  an  active  carriage ; 
(5)  downward  and  yet  outward  sprung  and  open  spaced 
ribs,  covered  with  a  soft,  pliable  and  elastic  skin.  Details 
relating  to  nerve  power,  or  temperament,  constitution  and 
vitality,  also  quantity  and  quality  in  milk  are  given  in  the 
"Study  of  the  Breeds,"  page  16.  (See  also  XVIII.) 

The  males  differ  from  the  females  in  the  following  es- 
sentials, as  outlined  in  Extension  Bulletin  No.  9  of  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  college : — 

1.  The  general  outline  should  be  stronger,  including 
more  bone  and  should  possess  marked  indications  of  mas- 
culinity, as  shown  in  head,  neck  and  fore  quarters. 

2.  The  head  should  be  strong  and  full  of  character 
and  vigor,  as  expressed  in  its  poise,  clean  cut  outline,  width 
at  forehead  and  full  active  eye. 

3.  The  neck  should  have    less    of    length,    more    of 
muscling,,  and  should  be  somewhat  arched. 

4.  The  fore  quarters  should  be  more  strongly  devel- 
oped and  should  have  good  width  and  depth  of  breast  and 
chest  as  a  strong  guaranty  of  good  constitution. 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  147 

5.  The  back  should  be  straighter,  stronger  and  wider. 

6.  The  barrel  should  be  relatively  shorter  and  more 
compact. 

7.  The  hind  quarters  should  be  relatively  longer  and 
broader,  the  width  being  carried  well  back  from  loin  to 
tail-head,  and  the  hip  bones  set  well  apart. 


CHAMPION   BROWN   SWISS   COW 

[Typical  Dual  Purpose  Cow.] 
[By  courtesy  of  the  owner,  E.  M.  Barton,   Hinsd?,le,  111.] 

8.  The   rudimentary    teats   should   be   well    developed 
and  the  milk  veins  should  be  easily  traceable. 

9.  The  skin  should  be  thicker  and  heavier  and  yet  it 
should  be  loose,  soft,  pliable,  mellow  and  elastic  and  covered 
with  a  good  coat  of  soft,  silky  hair. 

10.  The  general  appearance   should  indicate  what  may 
be  termed  irrepressible  action,  but  without  any  tendency  to 
viciousness. 

As  the  indications  of  milk  inheritance  are  not  so  easily 
traced  in  the  dairy  male  as  in  the  female,  it  is  more  im- 
portant relatively  that  he  shall  come  from  ancestry  dis- 


148  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

tinguished  for  abundant  dairy  production  in  the  near  gen- 
erations thereof.  It  is  also  more  important  because  of  the 
more  numerous  progeny  which  comes  from  the  male. 

Type  in  dual  purpose  cattle. — The  essentials  in 
form  and  function  in  dual  purpose  cattle  are  virtually  the 
same  in  all  the  breeds  and  grades  of  this  class.  The  chief 
differences  are  such  as  relate  to  breed  and  grade  peculiari- 
ties. The  differences  pertaining  to  breed  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  consulting  the  standards  given  in  'The  Study 
of  Breeds."  Those  pertaining  to  grades  of  those  breeds  are 
virtually  the  same,  but  may  be  less  in  degree. 

Indications  of  correct  form  and  function  in  dual  purpose 

cows. 

1.  Size. — Large  in   form  and  capacious  in  body,  not 
massive  like  the  high  type  beef  animal,  neither  coarse  nor 
unduly  refined  and   possessed  of   what  may  be  termed  a 
happy  equilibrium  in  development. 

2.  General    outline. — The    form    should    be    parallelo- 
grammic  rather  than  wedge-shaped,  and  nearly  evenly  de- 
veloped in  front  and  rear. 

3.  Head. — Only   moderately   large   and     inclining     to 
long,  clean  cut  and  free  from  throatiness. 

(a),  Forehead,  wide, 

(b),  Nose,  inclining  to  long  and  fine, 

(c),  Muzzle,  medium  to  strong  and  moist, 

(d),  Nostrils,  large  and  open, 

(e),  Cheeks,  lean, 

(f),  Eyes,    large,    prominent    and    neither    restless 

nor  sleepy, 

(g),  Poll,  varying  with  the  breed  or  grade, 

(h),  Horns,  inclining  to  fine  when  present, 

(i),  Ears,  of  medium  size,  thickness  and  action,  but 

varying  with  the  breed  or  grade. 

4.  Neck. — Inclining  to  long  and  fine,  but  not  slim, 
(a),  Not  coarse  at  the  junction  with  the  head. 


TYPE   IN  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  149 

(b),  Of  medium  increasing  width  and  depth  toward 
the  shoulder,  and  joining  the  latter  neither  abruptly 
nor  so  smoothly  as  in  the  beef  breeds. 
5.  Back. — Moderately  wide  at  the  withers,  wide  at  the 
loin  and  pin  bones,  and  straight. 

6.  Fore  quarters. — Nearly  equal  in  development  with  the 
hind  quarters. 

(a),  Withers  moderately  wide, 

(b),  Shoulders  large  but  not   prominent,  and  pos- 
sessed of  medium  upward  and  forward  slope, 
(c),  Chest,  wide  through  the  heart,  capacious, 
(d),  Breast,  wide,  moderately  deep  and  full, 
(e),  Brisket,  wide  and  but  moderately  full, 
(f),  Forearm,  broad  and  but  moderately  full, 

7.  Barrel. — Long,  deep,  roomy,  capacious. 

(a),  Ribs,  at  least  fairly  well  sprung  and  deep,  well 
spaced,  easily  discernible  when  the  animal  is  giving 
milk,  and  possessed  of  good  space  between  the  last 
rib  and  hook  point, 

(b),  Crops,  filled  up  nearly  level  with  the  shoulder, 
when  in  fair  flesh, 
(c),  Fore  flanks,  low  and  full, 

(d),  Hind  flanks,  low,  moderately  full  and  of  less 
than  medium  thickness, 

(e),  Girth,  good  at  the  heart  and  at  least  good  at 
the  hind  flank, 

(f),  Underline  straight,  or  slightly  rounded  down- 
ward. 

8.  Hind  quarters. — Long,  wide,  deep  and  but  slightly 
drooping  away  from  the  sacrum  and  crupper. 

(a),  Hips  straight  on  the  sides, 

(b),  Thighs,  broad  and  in  a  line  externally  with 

the  hips,  and  possessed  of  but  little  or  no  incurvature 

behind, 

(c),  Buttocks,  straight,  or  nearly  so, 

(d),  Pin  bones,  wide,  but  not  prominent, 

(e),  Twist,  open  and  placed  moderately  low, 


I5O  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

(f),  Tail,  inclining  to  fine   and  long,   smoothly  set 
on  and  hanging  at  right  angles  with  the  body. 

9.  Udder. — Capacious,  evenly  quartered,  coming  well 
forward  and  backward  and  not  too  high  or  too  low. 

(a),  When  empty  it  should  be  pliant,  not  fleshy,  and 
with  much  loose  skin  hanging  in  folds  at  the  rear, 
(b),  The  teats  should  be  of  good  size  and  pointing 
slightly  outward. 

10.  Milk  veins. — Large,  long,  tortuous,  all  the  better  if 
branched,  and  they  should  enter  the  body  through  large 
orifices  or  milk  wells. 

11.  Legs. — Medium  in  length  and  bone,  straight  and 
widely  placed. 

12.  Skin. — Medium,   inclining  to   fine,   easily   movable 
particularly  on  the  ribs,  and  plentifully  covered  with  soft 
hair  devoid  of  coarseness  or  harshness. 

13.  General  appearance. — The  large,  refined  and  fairly 
smooth  form  of  the  dual  purpose  animal  carries   with  it 
evidences  of  producing  capacity. 

(a),  In  movement,  it  is  neither  sprightly  nor  slug- 
gish, but  easy, 

(b),  When  in  milk,  it  is  not  high  fleshed,  but  puts 
on  flesh  quickly  when  dry. 

Given  in  summary  the  more  important  indications  in 
dual  purpose  cows  and  important,  perhaps  in  the  order 
named,  are  the  following: — 

(i)  Medium  to  large  size  for  the  breed  or  grade;  (2) 
good  length  and  depth  in  the  barrel;  (3)  good  development 
of  udder  and  milk  veins ;  (4)  good  constitution  as  indicated 
by  good  width  through  the  heart ;  (5)  head  and  neck  inclin- 
ing to  long  and  fine  and  (6)  ribs  of  medium  spring,  deep, 
open-spaced  and  covered  with  a  good  handling  skin. 

The  points  of  contrast  between  dual  purpose  cattle, 
dairy  and  beef  cattle  respectively  are  given  in  "The  Study 
of  Breeds,"  page  21.  What  has  been  said  with  reference 
to  the  points  of  contrast  between  the  male  and  female  in 
dairy  cattle  (see  p.  146)  will  apply  also  to  the  dual  purpose 


TYPE     IN     DOMESTIC     ANIMALS  15! 

breeds,  except  that  the  indications  of  nervous  energy  are 
not  so  marked  in  the  latter.  In  choosing  males,  much  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  dual  qualities  of  the  im- 
mediate ancestry. 


GRAND  CHAMPION  CHEVIOT  EWE  AT  STATE  FAIR 
[By    courtesy    of    American    Agriculturist] 

Type  in  sheep  for  feeding. — As  previously  intimated, 
the  standard  for  sheep  selected  for  fattening  is  not  the  same 
as  for  sheep  of  the  pure  breeds.  For  the  guidance  of  the 
feeder,  the  following  standard  is  submitted: 

Principal  points  of  sheep  for  feeding. 

I.  Uniformity. — This  should  relate  to  breeding,  size 
and  quality. 


152  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

2.  Size. — The  size  should  be  sufficient  for  the  breed 
and  the  age,  and  linked  with  it  should  be  bone,  medium  to 
strong  but  not  .coarse. 

3.  General  outline.— Smooth,    compact,    cylindrical    in 
shape  and  square  at  the  ends. 

4.  Head. — Of  medium  size,  the  shape  varying  with  the 
breed,  but  a  tendency  to  short,  broad  and  tapering  is  pre- 
ferred. 

5.  Neck. — Short,  round  rather  than  flat,  well  muscled, 
and  increasing  in  size  toward  the  shoulders. 

6.  Body. — Long,  wide,  deep,   round  and  equally  bal- 
anced before  and  behind. 

(a),  Back,   strong,   straight   and   broad,   with  large 

loin  area, 

(b),  Breast,  broad  and  deep  and     the     fuller    the 

better, 

(c),  Brisket,  broad  and  rounded, 

(d),  Shoulder,  wide,  deep  ^nd  smooth, 

(e),  Forearm,  strong  and  well-muscled, 

(f),  Girth,  at  fore  and  hind  flank  large  and  about 

equally  good, 

(g),  Ribs,    well-sprung    from    spinal    column,    well 

arched  and  deep. 

7.  Hind  quarters. — Long,  broad  and  deep. 

(a),  Rump  area,  long,  wide  and  level  as  possible, 
(b),  Twist,  low, 
(c),  Hind  flank,  low, 
(d),  Thigh,  well-muscled. 

8.  Skin. — Of  bright  color  and  the  more  pliable,  the 
better. 

9.  Legs. — Short,  straight  and  strong,  wide  apart  and 
well  under  the  body,  and  standing  firmly  on  hoofs  of  good 
shape  and  quality. 

10.  The  whole  body  should    be    covered    with    bright 
lustrous  wool  and  characteristic  of  the  breed  or  grade. 


TYPE   IN  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  153 

Points  especially  objectionable. — These  include  and 
probably  objectionable  in  the  order  named: — (i)  Indica- 
tions of  lack  of  constitution  as  shown  in  long,  slim  head 
and  neck,  narrow  chest  and  small  heart  girth;  (2)  lack  of 
vigor,  as  shown  in  low  carriage  of  head,  dull  eye,  drooping 
ears,  crooked  legs  with  weak  bone,  short  dry  lusterless 
wool  and  sluggish  movement  and  (3)  lack  of  good  flesh- 
ing qualities,  as  shown  in  weak  back,  small  loin  and  rump 
area  and  small  thighs. 

Except  in  animals  not  mature,  fattening  does  not  in- 
crease the  size  of  head  or  limbs  but  it  does  influence 
materially  the  covering  on  all  parts  of  the  body.  The 
neck  vein  is  filled,  the  breast  rounded  out,  the  crops  and 
flanks  are  filled  much  fuller,  the  spinal  column  is  covered 
or  nearly  so  in  all  parts,  flesh  is  increased  on  the  loin  and 
the  thighs  increase  within  and  without.  The  yoke  is  in- 
creased in  the  wool  and  with  such  increase  comes  increase 
in  luster.  Thus  marked  are  the  contrasts  in  the  furnish- 
ings of  the  finished  sheep,  as  compared  with  the  one  not 
yet  fattened. 

Type  in  swine  for  feeding. — While  the  standard  for 
swine  chosen  for  being  fattened  is  not  ttoe  same  as  for  the 
various  breeds  in  perfected  form,  the  difference  is  not  so 
marked  usually  as  with  cattle  and  sheep,  since  swine 
are  more  commonly  kept  in  a  relatively  better  condition  of 
flesh  during  the  growing  period.  The  standards  for  the 
different  breeds  are  given  in  "The  Study  of  Breeds."  The 
standard  now  submitted  applies  more  to  the  lard  and  inter- 
mediate types  than  to  the  bacon  types.  The  essential  dif- 
ferences will  be  given  by  way  of  contrast. 

Principal  points  of  swine  for  feeding. 

1.  Uniformity. — This  should  relate  to  breeding,  size, 
color  and  quality. 

2.  Sise. — The  size  should  be  sufficient  for  the  breed 
and  the  age  of  the  animal. 


154  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 

3.  General  outline. — Moderately  compact  rather  than 
rangy,  having  the  appearance  of  strength  and  vigor. 

4.  Head. — Medium    size,    short,    broad,    tapering   and 
not  coarse. 

5.  Neck. — Short    rather   than    long,    moderately   wide 
and  deep  at  the  junction  with  the  head  and  increasingly 
so  at  the  junction  with  the  shoulders. 

6.  Body. — Long,  deep  and  broad,  with  fore  and  hind 
quarters  evenly  balanced. 

(a),  Back,  straight,  or  slightly  arched  in  the  longer 
bodied  breeds  and  even  in  width, 
(b),  Shoulders,  large,  broad  and  deep, 
(c),  Chest,  wide  and  deep, 
(d),  Brisket,  broad, 

(e),  Forearm,    moderately   short,   broad,     tapering 
and  well-muscled, 

(f),  Side,  moderately  long,  deep,  straight  and  even, 
(g),  Ribs,  springing    out    well     from     the     spinal 
column,  descending  with  a  sharp  curve  and  extend- 
ing well  down, 
(h),  Hearteand  flank  girth,  large  and  about  equal. 

7.  Hind  quarters. — Long,  deep  and  wide. 

(a),  Hams,  large  and  at  least  moderately  full, 
(b),  Rump  area,  broad,  level,  retaining  width  from 
loin  backward,  and  not  much  drooping  toward  the 
tail-head, 

(c),  Thigh,  moderately  short,  broad,  tapering  and 
well-muscled  within  and  without, 
(d),  Twist,  low. 

3.  Legs. — Short,  straight,  set  well  apart,  with  strong 
bone  and  short,  straight  pasterns. 

9.  Skin. — Smooth,  free  from  scurf,  and  covered  with 
a  moderate  coat  of  soft  hair  of  good  quality. 

Points  especially  objectionable. — These  include  and 
probably  objectionable  in  the  order  named: — (i)   A  long 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


155 


narrow,  shallow  body;  (2)  long  fine  legs  with  weak  pas- 
terns; (3)  a  long,  narrow  head,  neck  and  chest  and  (4) 
scurfiness  of  skin,  indicating  mal-nutrition. 

The  bacon  breeds  differ  from  the  lard  and  inter- 
mediate types  in  the  following  particulars: — (i)  They  are 
less  compact  in  form  and  are  longer  in  head,  neck,  body 


QUALITY,  CHAMPION  PERCHERON  STALLION 
AT  SPRINGFIELD,   ILL.,    1906, 
[A    Typical    Draught    Horse] 
[By  courtesy  of  the  owners,  Taylor    &    Jones,    Williamsville,    111.] 

and  limbs;  (2)  they  are  fully  as  deep  in  body  but  not  so 
wide;  (3)  they  have  relatively  lighter  shoulders  and  hams; 
(4)  they  are  more  active  in  movement. 

Except  with  swine  not  mature,  fattening  does  not 
increase  the  size  of  head  except  in  the  jowl,  or  of  the 
limbs,  but  it  does  increase  the  covering  on  all  other  parts 
of  the  frame.  It  affects  the  width  more  than  the  depth. 

Type  in  its  relation  to  horses. — As  previously  men- 
tioned, type  divides  horses  into  the  draught,  light  and 


156  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

general  purpose  classes.  This  classification  is  general 
rather  than  specific,  as  the  intermediate  types  between 
draught  and  light  horses  are  many  and  various,  and  in  some 
instances  these  are  not  distinctly  pronounced.  The  minute 
discussion  of  these  differences  cannot  be  entered  upon  in 
this  work.  Draught  horses  are  maintained  primarily  for 
drawing  heavy  loads  in  the  cities  and  towns  and  for  doing 
heavy  work  on  the  farm  or  elsewhere.  For  doing  such 
work  strength  and  endurance  are  the  first  considerations. 
Light  horses  are  maintained  primarily  for  driving  or 
riding.  While  thus  employed,  speed  .  and  endurance  are 
the  first  consideration.  General  purpose  horses  are  main- 
tained primarily  for  driving  and  also  for  performing  work. 
But  such  strength  is  not  to  be  looked  for  as  from  draught 
horses,  nor  such  speed  as  from  light  horses. 

Type  in  draught  horses. — The  four  distinct  breeds  of 
draught  horses  in  America  are  the  Percheron,  the  Clydes- 
dale, the  Shire  and  the  Belgian.  Each  of  these  has  its  own 
distinct  peculiarities.  These  can  only  be  ascertained  by  the 
careful  study  of  the  literature  pertaining  to  each.  Notwith- 
standing these  differences,  there  are  certain  essential  points 
of  form  and  function  which  they  possess  in  common,  to 
the  extent  of  making  it  feasible  to  draw  up  a  scale  of  points 
that  will  apply  to  each  of  these  breeds.  This  has  been 
done  by  Prof.  John  A.  Craig  in  his  excellent  book  "Judging 
Live  Stock,"  and  is  reproduced  here. 

Scale  of  points  for  gelding  draught  horses. 

General  appearance. —  Perfect  score 

Weight,   over   1500  pounds.     Score  according 
to  age,  4 

Form,  broad,  massive,  low  set,  proportioned,         4 
Quality,   bone   clean,    yet    indicating    sufficient 

substance ;  tendons   distinct ;  skin   and  hair  fine,     4 
Temperament  energetic,  good  disposition,  4 

Head  and  neck. — 

Head,  lean,  medium  size,  I 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC    ANIMALS  157 

Perfect    Score 

Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  even,  i 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  I 

Forehead,  broad,  full,  I 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried,  I 

Neck,  muscled,  crest  high,  throatlatch  fine, 
windpipe  large,  I 

Pore  quarters. — 

Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending 
into  back,  -  2 

Arm,  short,  thrown  forward,  I 

Forearm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide,  2 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly 
supported,  2 

Cannons,  short,  lean,  wide,  tendons  large  set 
back,  2 

Fetlocks,   wide,   straight,   strong,  I 

Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy,  3 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight,  horn  dense ; 
dark  color;  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog 
large,  elastic,  heel  wide,  high,  one  half  length 
of  toe,  8 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  up- 
on the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern  and 
foot.  From  the  side  a  perpendicular  line 
dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  .and 
pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof,  4 

Body.— 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth,  2 

Ribs,  long,  close,  sprung,  2 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  2 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick,  straight,  2 

Underline,  flank  low,  i 

Hind  quarters. — 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  2 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular,  2 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


DAN  PATCH    1.55  AT  HOME 
[By  courtesy  of  the  owner,  M.  W.  Savage,    Minneapolis,    Minn.] 


Perfect   Score 
I 
2 
2 


Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried, 
Thighs,  muscular, 
Quarters,  deep,  heavily  muscled, 
Gaskins,  or  lower  thighs,  wide,  muscled,  2 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  wide,  straight,  8 

Cannons,  short,  wide,  tendons  large,  set  back     2 
Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  I 

Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy,  2 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight,  horn  dense, 
dark  color,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog 
large,  elastic,  heel  wide,  high,  one  half  length 
of  toe,  6 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS          •  159 

Perfect   Score 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and 
foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle 
and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of 
the  cannon.  4 

Action. — 

Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced,  6 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  4 

Total,  100 

Type  in  light  horses. — Light  horses  are  commonly 
divided  into  three  classes.  These  are  the  roadster,  saddle 
and  carriage  types.  In  the  pure  form  they  are  represented 
in  the  standard  trotter  or  pacer,  in  the  standard  saddle  horse 
and  in  the  various  breeds  of  coach  horses.  Because  of 
variations  in  type  more  or  less  pronounced,  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  present  a  scale  of  points  that  will  furnish  an  ab- 
solute guide  for  the  selection  of  the  various  classes  of  light 
horses.  Nevertheless  they  have  in  common  certain  essen- 
tial characteristics  which  may  thus  be  given.  These  have 
been  well  summarized  by  Prof.  John  A.  Craig,  and  are 
now  submitted : — 


Scale  of  points  for  gelding  light  horses. 

General  appearance. —  Perfect  score 

Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,   stylish,  4 

Quality,  bone  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  suffi- 
cient substance,  tendons  defined,  hair  and  skin 
fine,  4 

Temperament,  active,  kind   disposition,  4 

Head  and  neck. — 

Head,  lean,  straight,  I 


l6o  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Perfect   Score 

Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips     thin,     even, 
teeth  sound,  I 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  I 

Forehead,  broad,  full,  I 

Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and 
not  far  apart,  I 

Neck,    muscled,    crest    high,    throatlatch    fine, 
windpipe  large,  I 

Fore  quarters. — 

Shoulders,  long,  smooth, 'with  muscle  oblique, 
extending  into  back,  2 

Arms,  short,  thrown  forward,  I 

Forearms,  muscled,  long,  wide,  2 

Knees,  clean,  wide,  straight,     deep,     strongly 
supported,  2 

Cannons,  short,   wide,   sinews   large,   set   back     2 
Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  I 

Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground  45  de- 
grees, 3 
Feet,  medium,  even  size,  straight,  horn  dense, 
frog  large,  elastic,  bars  strong,  sole  concave, 
heel  wide,  6 
Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  up- 
on the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern  and 
foot.  From  the  side  a  perpendicular  line 
dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and 
pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof,  4 

Body.— 

Withers,  muscled  and  well  finished  at  top,  I 

Chest,  deep,  low,  large  girth,  2 

'  Ribs,  long,  sprung,  close,  2 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscle,.,  2 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick,  2 

Underline,  long,  flank  let  down,  I 


TYPE   IN   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  l6l 

Hind  quarters. —  Perfect  Score 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level,  2 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscula.,  2 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried,  I 

Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled,       2 
Quarters,  heavily  muscled,  deep,  2 

Gaskin  or  lower  thighs,  long,  wide,  muscular,      2 
Hocks,  clearly  defined,  wide,  straight,  5 

Cannon,^  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back,      2 
Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  I 

Pasterns,  strong,  sloping,  2 

Feet,  medium,  even  size,  straight,  horn  dense, 
frog  large,  elastic,  bars  strong,  sole  concave, 
heel  wide,  high,  4 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular 
line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern 
and  foot.  From  the  side  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle 
and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the 
cannon,  4 

Iction. — 

Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced,  5 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high,  15 

Total  100 

Type  in  general  purpose  horses. — Since  general  pur- 
pose horses  have  been  variously  bred  and  usually  in  a  sort 
of  aimless  way,  that  is  without  any  very  distinctly  defined 
purpose  in  view,  it  could  not  be  otherwise  than  that  the 
horses  of  this  class  should  vary  greatly.  Some  will  be  so 
heavy  as  to  constitute  what  may  be  termed  light  draught 
horses  and  some  so  light  as  to  carry  no  more  weight  than 


162 


FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


DAN    PATCH,    THE    WORLD'S    RECORD    PACER 
[By  courtesy  of  the  owner,  M.  W.  Savage,    Minneapolis     Minn.] 

the  carnage  classes.  They  will  also  vary  much  in  con- 
formation, according  to  the  character  of  the  grade  or  cross 
used  in  obtaining  them.  Because  of  these  differences,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  present  a  scale  of  points  at  the  present 
time  that  would  be  of  much  service  in  describing  horses  of 
this  class. 


CHAPTER  X. 
PRINCIPLES  THAT   GOVERN   FEEDING. 

The  discussion  in  Chapter  X  relates  to  the  principles 
that  govern  the  feeding  of  animals  with  reference  to  the 
chemical  constituents  which  feeds  possess,  as  adapted  to  the 
class  and  age  of  animals  to  which  they  are  to  be  fed  and  the 
precise  objects  for  which  they  are  maintained.  It  differs 
from  the  discussion  in  Part  I  in  that  it  is  specific  while  the 
former  is  general.  The  principles  in  this  chapter  relate  10 
furnishing  feeds  that  will  contain  the  nutrients  which  they 
must  have  in  due  proportion  if  the  end  sought  is  to  be 
reached. 

In  theory,  these  principles  have  all  the  strength  of  law, 
but  in  practice  it  is  very  frequently  not  possible  to  apply 
them  so  that  the  results  sought  or  that  should  be  expected 
from  such  feeding,  will  follow,  owing  to  the  subtle  influ- 
ences that  frequently  result  from  environment,  from  inter- 
nal causes  that  cannot  always  be  discerned,  and  from  varia- 
tions resulting  from  the  physiological  influence  of  feeds 
apart  from  the  nutrients  they  contain  as  given  by  chemical 
analysis. 

The  elementary  substances  necessary  to  the  growth 
of  plants  are  essentially  the  same  as  the  chemical  elements 
of  the  animal  body.  These  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magne- 
sium and  iron.  In  addition  to  these  are  chlorine  and  so- 
dium, the  elements  of  common  salt.  These  elements  do  not 
exist  simply  but  are  united  into  numberless  compounds, 
both  organic  and  inorganic.  For  convenience  of  reference, 
they  are  classified  as  nitrogenous  or  non-nitrogenous,  ac- 
cording as  the  chemical  compounds  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed contain  nitrogen  or  do  not  contain  nitrogen.  The 
water  in  foods  must  also  be  considered,  but  this  is  not  so 

163 


164  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

important,  since  water  can  be  supplied.  These  elements 
exist  in  varying  degrees  in  plants  and  in  the  same  plant  at 
different  stages  of  development,  and  similarly  they  differ  in 
the  degree  of  the  digestibility  which  they  possess.  The  de- 
gree in  which  they  are  present  and  also  the  degree  of  the 
digestibility  which  they  possess,  can  only  be  determined  by 
chemical  analysis,  hence  the  necessity  for  tables  of  feeding 
stuffs,  which  the  feeder  may  consult  when  preparing  or 
feeding  foods.  The  proportions  in  which  these  elements 
should  be  supplied  to  animals  also  varies  with  the  class  of 
the  animal,  the  age,  the  performance  and  the  object  for 
which  it  is  kept.  The  adaptation  of  food  to  the  needs  of  the 
animals  to  which  it  is  to  be  fed  virtually  constitutes  the 
great  art  of  feeding. 

I^or  convenience  in  reference,  certain  definitions  per- 
taining first  to  the  feeds  themselves  and  second  to  the  meth- 
ods of  blending  or  compounding  them  for  feeding,  have 
come  into  common  use.  These  are  all  considered  in  Chap- 
ter X.  The  definitions  which  pertain  to  feeds  include  the 
terms:  (i)  Food  nutrient;  (2)  food  factor  or  feeding  stuff; 
(3)  food  or  feeding  ration  and  (4)  table  of  feeding  stuffs. 
Those  which  pertain  to  the  blending  or  compounding  of 
feeds,  include  the  terms:  (i)  Nutritive  ratio;  (2)  feeding 
standard  and  (3)  table  of  feeding  standards.  Familiarity 
with  these  terms  and  the  ability  to  reduce  to  practice  what 
is  implied  in  them,  should  prove  helpful  to  all  persons  en- 
gaged in  growing  stock. 

Food  nutrient. — A  food  nutrient  is  any  single  chem- 
ical compound  capable  of  being  assimilated  by  the  body,  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  new  tissue,  either  for  new  growth 
or  to  replace  that  which  is  worn  out.  The  body  is  com- 
posed of:  (i)  Nitrogenous  organic  substance;  (2)  non- 
nitrogenous  organic  substance  and  (3)  mineral  substance. 
Since  a  food  nutrient  in  order  to  permit  of  easy  assimila- 
tion, must  in  its  composition  be  identical  with  the  substances 
normally  found  in  the  body,  the  nutrients  may  be  classified 
very  similarly  to  the  classification  of  the  substances  of  the 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PRINCIPLES     THAT     GOVERN      FEEDING  165 

body  as  given  above.  They  are,  therefore  :  (  I  )  Nitrog- 
enous organic  substances;  (2)  non-nitrogenous  organic 
substances  and  (3)  mineral  or  inorganic  substances.  Al- 
bumen, the  essential  constituent  of  the  white  of  egg,  is  an 
example  of  a  nitrogenous  nutrient,  starch  of  a  non-nitrog- 
enous nutrient,  and  common  salt  of  a  mineral  or  inorganic 
nutrient.  Nutrients  are  seldom  found  in  an  unmixed  state, 
but  are  generally  combined  in  one  fodder. 

Food  factor  or  feeding  stuff.  —  The  term  food  factor 
or  feeding  stuff  is  any  natural  or  artificial  product  used  as 
food  for  animals.  Food  factors  usually  contain  two  or 
more  nutrients  intimately  blended  but  in  varying  propor- 
tions and  also  more.  or  less  substance  that  is  indigestible  and 
which,  therefore,  cannot  be  appropriated  by  the  animal  to 
which  the  food  is  fed.  Feeding  stuffs  may  be  roughly  clas- 
sified as  nitrogenous  or  non-nitrogenous  according  as  the  or- 
ganic nutrients  are  more  largely  of  one  kind  or  the  other. 
In  nearly  all  instances  they  contain  a  sufficiency  of  mineral 
nutrients,  the  exceptions  being  common  salt  and  in  some  in- 
stances ash  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

The  principal  nitrogenous  constituents  of  feeding  stuffs 
are  the  albuminoids,  as  legumin,  the  nitrogenous  constituent 
of  peas,  beans  and  clover,  and  gluten,  the  nitrogenous 
constituent  of  wheat.  Likewise  the  nitrogenous  substances 
of  the  body  consist  largely  of  albuminoids.  So  in- 
trinsically important  are  they,  that  all  the  manifestations  of 
animal  life  are  dependent  on  them  and  on  the  organs  which 
are  composed  of  them.  They  also  furnish  the  materials 
out  of  which  the  other  important  groups  of  nitrogenous 
substances  are  formed;  viz.,  the  gelatinoids  and  the  horny 
matters. 

The  albuminoids  are  found  under  various  manifesta- 
tions in  all  the  organs  and  fluids  of  the  healthy  body  except 
the  urine  and  they  form  the  chief  constituents  of  their  com- 
position. Nearly  all  the  vital  processes  of  the  body  have  for 
their  object  the  effecting  of  changes  upon  the  form,  location 


1 66  FEEDING  FARM   ANIMALS 

or  function  of  the  albuminoid  material.  The  principal  al- 
buminoids of  the  body  are  albumen,  found  in  nearly  all  its 
fluids,  flesh  fibrin,  the  chief  constituents  of  muscular  fibre, 
blood  fibrin,  the  essential  element  of  the  clotting  part  of 
blood,  and  casein,  the  constituent  of  milk  which  forms  the 
basis  of  cheese.  The  gelatinoids  form  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance of  the  bones  and  cartilages  and  also  make  up  the 
larger  part  of  the  tendons,  ligaments,  connective  tissue  and 
the  skin.  The  horny  matters,  which  differ  but  little  in  chem- 
ical composition  from  the  albuminoids  or  gelatinoids,  are 
found  chiefly  on  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  body,  that  is,  in 
the  epidermis  or  scarf  skin,  the  hair,  the  wool,  the  horns 
and  the  hoofs.  The  chemical  composition  of  these  three 
groups  of  nitrogenous  substances  is  practically  the  same, 
and  what  is  exceedingly  important  in  this  connection,  the 
same  chemical  composition  will  hold  good  with  respect  to 
the  nitrogenous  substances  found  in  foods.  The  further 
discussion  of  the  many  and  exceedingly  important  functions 
of  the  nitrogenous  substance  in  the  animal  body  cannot  be 
carried  further  in  this  work. 

The  principal  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  are  cellulose,  starch,  sugar,  gum,  fat,  oil  and  the 
various  vegetable  acids.  These  are  classified  as  carbohy- 
drates and  fat.  The  carbohydrates,  composed  principally 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  include  cellulose,  starch, 
sugar,  gum  and  the  vegetable  acids.  The  fat  and  oil  are 
generally  considered  together  as  fat.  The  non-nitrogenous 
constituents  of  plants  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  be- 
ing carbohydrates  or  fats.  But  a  part  of  the  cellulose  of 
plants  often  becomes  hardened  into  a  more  or  less  indigesti- 
ble fibrous  condition.  This  is  commonly  separated  from  the 
remaining  carbohydrates  in  the  table  of  feeding  stuffs  (see 
p.  175)  and  placed  in  a  class  by  itself  as  crude  fibre.  The 
non-nitrogenous  substance  also  includes  the  ash,  that  is,  the 
inorganic  or  mineral  part  which  remains  after  the  plant  has 
been  consumed  by  fire.  These  all  play  a  more  or  less  impor- 
tant part  in  the  economy  of  animal  growth  and  production. 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  167 

Fat  is  the  most  abundant  by  far  of  the  non-nitrogenous 
organic  substances  of  the  animal  body.  It  is  found  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  same,  in  some  places  as  minute  particles 
and  in  others  as  special  deposits  of  considerable  quantity. 
The  sources  of  fat  in  the  body  are,  first,  the  fat  in  the  food ; 
second,  the  albuminoids  or  nitrogenous  substance  in  the 
food,  and  third,  the  carbohydrates  in  the  same.  Whether 
the  carbohydrates  are  direct  sources  of  body  fat  is  uncer- 
tain, but  indirectly  they  certainly  are.  The  presence  of  ani- 
mal fat  in  the  animal  body  has  the  effect  of  decreasing  the 
protein  consumption  and  of  retarding  the  tendency  to  nitro- 
gen equilibrium. 

Protein  consumption  means  the  removal  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  nitrogenous  substance,  that  is  protein,  taken  into 
the  body  and  digested  through  oxidation  and  the  excretion 
of  worn  out  nitrogenous  tissue. 

Nitrogen  equilibrium  is  that  principle  which  inheres  in 
the  animal  body  through  which  it  eventually  puts  itself  into 
equilibrium  with  the  nitrogenous  constituents  which  it  re- 
ceives in  its  food  above  what  is  necessary  to  maintain  it  in  an 
average  condition.  This  question,  significant  in  its  bearing  on 
practical  feeding,  cannot  be  elaborated  further  in  this  work. 

The  following  are  chief  among  the  influences  which  fat 
in  the  food  exerts:  (i)  It  decreases  protein  consumption 
and  thereby  increases  protein  deposition.  Protein  deposi- 
tion means  the  retention  and  use  of  that  portion  of  the  ni- 
trogenous food  consumed  and  digested  which  remains  in 
the  body  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  It  is  assimilated  as 
new  nitrogenous  tissue  or  as  tissue  which  has  replaced  old 
worn  out  or  waste  nitrogenous  tissue.  (2)  It  decreases  the 
protein  consumption  in  the  body  and  it  does  so  indepen- 
dently of  the  protein  supply.  The  protein  consumption  in- 
creases and  diminishes  with  the  protein  supply  in  the  food, 
and  all  that  the  fat  does  is  to  diminish  it  by  a  certain  quan- 
tity, which  will  be  the  same  no  matter  how  large  the  protein 
supply  in  the  food  may  be.  (3)  Like  fat  in  the  body  it  re- 
tards the  tendency  to  nitrogen  equilibrium.  Its  presence  in 


l68  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

the  food  favors  the  formation  out  of  the  protein  supply  of 
stable  tissue,  in  place  of  part  of  the  circulatory  protein, 
which  means  to  some  extent  increase  in  flesh.  Circulatory 
protein  is  that  portion  of  the  nitrogenous  substance  taken 
from  the  food  which  remains  for  a  time  in  the  blood,  await- 
ing either  conversion  into  stable  flesh  tissue,  or  oxidation 
and  decomposition  into  the  fluids  of  the  excretory  organs. 
In  well-fed  animals,  it  causes  what  is  called  the  juiciness  of 
the  flesh. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  while  the  presence 
of  fat  in  small  quantities  is  favorable  to  the  formation  of 
flesh,  in  large  quantities  it  is  injurious,  since  it  disturbs  the 
digestion  and  thus  impairs  the  appetite.  Therefore,  the 
ordinary  feeding  stuffs  fed  to  farm  animals  should  contain 
but  little  fat. 

The  influence  of  carbohydrates  in  the  food  on  the 
formation  of  flesh  is  very  similar  to  that  of  fat  in  the  same. 
Prominent  among  these  influences  are  the  following:  (i) 
Carbohydrates  in  the  food  decrease  the  protein  consump- 
tion and  thereby  increase  the  protein  deposition  (see  p.  167) 
the  protein  consumption  depending  as  regards  quantity 
solely  on  the  protein  supply.  (2)  They  retard  the  tendency 
toward  nitrogen  equilibrium  and  therefore  cause  a  longer 
continued  gain  of  flesh  than  would  be  affected  by  nitroge- 
nous foods  alone. 

The  carbohydrates  are  helpful  in  promoting  growth, 
in  producing  fat,  and  in  generating  heat  so  necessary  to  the 
maintenance  in  healthy  action  of  all  the  functions  of  the 
body.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  greatest  gain  of  flesh 
is  made  when  the  proportion  of  carbohydrates  in  the  food 
fed  is  large.  In  regard  to  flesh  formation  they  produce 
about  the  same  results  as  fat  and  are  much  cheaper,  hence 
they  should  be  fed  to  the  greatest  extent  possible  instead  of 
fat,  except  in  such  instances  as  when  it  is  necessary  to  feed 
fat  in  the  food  because  of  its  greater  power  to  produce  heat 
(see  p.  177).  They  are  much  more  abundant  than  protein 
in  foods  and,  therefore,  cheaper  than  this  element  also,  hence 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  169 

their  free  use  in  feeding  stuffs  tends  to  cheapen  the  ration. 
Moreover,  they  are  readily  eaten  and  digested  by  all  the  ani- 
mals of  the  farm.  And  yet  a  sufficiency  of  protein  must  be 
fed  since  the  nitrogenous  substances  constitute  so  large  a 
proportion  of  the  animal  body,  since  many  of  the  vital  proc- 
esses are  dependent  on  them,  and  since  they  are  so  neces- 
sary to  performance  as  in  the  production  of  flesh,  milk  and 
muscular  exertion. 

Crude  fibre  is  that  tough  woody  portion  of  the  plant 
which  constitutes  its  framework.  It  is  the  portion  that  re- 
mains after  the  softer  parts  have  been  dissolved  and  washed 
out.  Young  plants  contain  considerably  less  of  crude  fibre 
than  those  which  have  produced  seeds,  and  the  seeds  of 
plants  also  contain  much  less  than  the  stems  and  leaves. 
It  is  not  easily  digested,  especially  by  animals  which  do  not 
ruminate.  The  portion  digested  is  thought  to  have  prac- 
tically the  same  function  as  the  other  digestible  carbohy- 
drates, and  is  supposed  to  equal  them  in  value.  The  indi- 
gestible portion,  oftentimes  a  tax  upon  the  digestion,  may 
sometimes  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  the  bulk  which  it  fur- 
nishes. 

Ash,  the  inorganic  portion  of  plants  and  of  animal  bod- 
ies, is  that  part  which  remains  after  either  has  been  con- 
sumed by  flame.  In  plants  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  leaves. 
These  mineral  matters  are  usually  amply  present  in  all  foods 
to  meet  the  needs  of  animals,  with  the  exception  of  salt, 
which  must  be  supplied.  In  the  form  of  lime  and  phosphate 
they  go  to  make  bone,  as  soda  and  chlorine  they  aid  the  di- 
gestive juices,  and  as  iron  they  probably  help  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  red  corpuscles  in  the  blood.  For  reasons  that 
will  be  manifest  young  and  growing  animals  need  them  in 
largest  supply. 

Importance  of  nitrogenous  substances. — From  what 
has  been  said,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances of  the  body  are  by  far  the  most  important  since  they 
include  nearly  all  the  solid  parts  except  the  fat  and  the  min- 
eral constituents  of  the  bones.  Therefore,  for  the  sake  of 


I7O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

brevity,  it  is  usual  to  speak  of  all  the  nitrogenous  substance 
of  the  body  as  flesh,  as  distinguished  from  fat  and  bone. 
For  a  similar  reason  the  word  fat  is  used  to  denote  all  the 
non-nitrogenous  substance  of  the  body,  both  the  real  fat 
and  the  other  substance.  Likewise  the  word  bone  is  fre- 
quently used  to  denote  only  the  mineral  constituents  of 
bone,  although  much  of  the  substance  of  bone  is  nitroge- 
nous organic  matter.  The  flesh  of  the  animal  body  is  also 
referred  to  as  protein  substance  and  the  fat  as  non-protein 
substance.  It  should  be  remembered  that  these  various 
terms  are  only  close  approximations  to  the  truth. 

The  discussion  of  the  various  food  factors  in  feeding 
stuffs  should  not  close  without  some  reference  to  their 
functions  in  producing  heat  and  in  sustaining  muscular  ex- 
ertion. The  influence  which  they  exert  on  milk  production 
is  touched  upon  elsewhere  (see  p.  413). 

Heat  in  the  animal  body  results  from  the  constant  proc- 
ess of  oxidation  or  burning  of  waste  tissue  and  of  food  sub- 
stance which  is  going  on  everywhere  in  every  part  of  the 
body  to  which  the  blood  reaches.  The  heat  supply  is  de- 
pendent on  the  food  supply,  for  the  tissues  that  are  oxidized 
or  burned  come  orignially  from  the  food.  This  oxidation  is 
maintained  with  no  gain  of  substance  but  of  loss,  as  the 
products  of  the  combustion,  carbonic  acid  gas,  water  and 
urea  must  be  gotten  rid  of  by  the  excretory  organs.  It  is 
estimated  that  of  the  whole  quantity  of  food  eaten  by  an 
animal  for  maintenance  about  four-fifths  are  required  to 
sustain  the  demand  occasioned  by  the  production  of  heat. 

Since  the  nitrogenous  substance,  the  fats,  and  the  car- 
bohydrates of  the  food  are  all  oxidizable,  they  may  be  all 
used  as  sources  of  heat.  But  the  fats  and  the  carbohy- 
drates are  the  most  suitable  since  their  oxidation  in  the 
blood  is  much  more  readily  effected  than  that  of  the  ni- 
trogenous substance.  They  are  also  on  the  whole  much 
cheaper,  as  previously  intimated  (see  p.  168). 

Regulation  of  animal  heat. — How  the  heat  of  the  ani- 
mal body  is  regulated  cannot  be  discussed  here.  But  in 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  171 

passing  it  may  be  said  that  the  following  are  chief  among 
the  influences  concerned  in  such  regulation:  (i)  The  kind 
and  amounts  of  the  food  fed;  (2)  the  temperature  to  which 
animals  are  exposed;  (3)  the  warming  of  food  and  drink 
taken  into  the  stomach;  (4)  the  amount  of  the  muscular  ex- 
ertion allowed  or  demanded;  (5)  the  conduction  and  radia- 
tion of  heat  from  the  skin;  and  (6)  the  evaporation  of 
water  from  the  skin  and  lungs. 

Muscular  exertion  may  be  classed  as  external  and  in- 
ternal. The  former  is  the  muscular  exertion  called  for  in 
effecting  the  movements  concerned  in  the  various  vital 
processes  within  the  body.  The  latter  is  the  muscular  exer- 
tion called  for  by  animals  when  exercising  or  performing 
physical  work.  The  relation  between  these  is  very  close. 
Of  whatever  kind  it  may  be,  it  calls  for  a  constant  supply  of 
heat  to  maintain  it,  and  the  greater  the  exertion,  of  course 
the  greater  the  supply  of  heat  demanded.  Of  course  this 
heat  must  all  come  directly  or  indirectly  from  the  food.  Be- 
yond this,  the  relation  between  food  supply  and  muscular 
exertion  is  not  well  understood.  It  is  certain,  however, 'that 
the  food  given  to  the  animal  to  support  muscular  exertion 
must  be  something  more  than  fuel,  that  is,  it  must  be  partly 
nitrogenous  and  it  must  be  liberal  in  supply.  Stated  in  sum- 
mary:  ( i )  Muscular  exertion  is  dependent  on  the  food  sup- 
ply; (2)  the  greater  the  exertion  to  be  made,  the  greater 
must  the  food  supply  be;  (3)  the  greater  the  exertion,  the 
greater  also  must  be  the  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance in  the  food. 

Food  or  feeding  ration. — The  term  food  or  feeding  ra- 
tion more  commonly  means  a  combination  of  the  food  fac- 
tors used  in  feeding  animals  in  any  given  instance,  but 
sometimes  it  may  mean  but  one  food  factor.  When  the 
proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents are  present  in  a  food  ration  in  that  degree  that  will 
best  effect  the  ends  sought  when  fed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  bal- 
ance (see  p.  172).  When  not  fed  in  balance  waste  in  some 


172  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

of  the  nutrients  will  follow  since  they  cannot  be  all  re- 
sorbed  into  the  system,  and  energy  is  taxed  in  removing 
the  excess  from  the  same.  Nor  can  that  happy  equilibrium 
in  the  process  of  digestion,  assimilation  and  excretion  be 
attained,  which  is  necessary  to  the  best  utilization  of  all  the 
food  fed  unless  it  is  in  balance,  not  only  in  its  nutrients  but 
in  the  proportion  of  the  bulk  that  accompanies  the  nutrients. 
The  definition  of  a  balanced  ration  usually  considers  only  the 
balance  of  digestible  nutrients,  while  the  balance  in  bulk 
and  concentration  may  be  of  but  little  less  importance.  Cer- 
tain foods  have  also  a  physiological  influence  in  addition  to 
the  nutrients  they  contain.  The  comprehensive  definition, 
therefore,  of  a  balanced  ration  may  be  made  to  read  thus : 
A  balanced  ration  is  one  in  which  the  bulk  and  concentrates, 
the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  and  the 
physiological  influence  which  these  exert  in  addition  to  their 
food  value,  are  present  in  that  degree  which  will  best  pro- 
duce the  results  sought  from  feeding  them.  The  great  im- 
portance, therefore,  of  feeding  foods  in  at  least  approxi- 
mate balance  is  very  evident. 

Information  regarding  the  balancing  of  rations  is  ob- 
tained from  two  sources ;  viz.,  from  the  experience  of  feeders 
and  from  a  table  of  feeding  standards  (see  p.  184).  The  first 
of  these  sources  is  by  no  means  to  be  despised,  as  an  old 
and  experienced  feeder,  without  any  knowledge  of  feeding 
standards,  will  frequently  take  foodstuffs  and,  guided  only 
by  his  own  judgment,  will  obtain  superior  results  from  feed- 
ing them  to  those  obtained  by  the  inexperienced  feeder  who 
blends  them  in  exact  accord  with  what  is  called  for  in  the 
feeding  standards.  This  result  may  not  follow  from  any 
error  in  the  standards,  but  from  the  presence  or  absence  of 
the  physiological  influences  referred  to  above,  or  because  of 
lack  of  equilibrium  between  the  bulk  and  nutrition,  or  from 
both  causes  combined.  Notwithstanding,  a  knowledge  of 
feeding  standards  and  of  the  way  in  which  they  may  be  util- 
ized in  feeding  will  always  be  of  great  service  to  those  en- 
gaged in  this  work,  because  of  the  wide  range  of  its  general 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING 

practical  application.  The  feeder  who  gains  his  knowledge 
only  through  experience  and  from  tradition,  is  long  in  gath- 
ering it,  and  his  knowledge  of  compounding  rations  is  usu- 
ally confined  to  the  productions  of  but  limited  areas. 

The  definition  of  a  feeding  ration  does  not  necessarily 
call  for  a  balanced  food.  Nor  does  it  imply  that  more  than 
one  kind  of  food  shall  be  used.  Grass  pasture,  though  it 
may  embrace  but  one  variety  of  grass,  is  none  the  less  a 
food  ration  than  one  formed  by  blending  any  number  of 
foods.  In  some  instances  a  single  food  may  make  a  bal- 
anced ration  quite  as  effectively  as  a  combination  of  foods, 
since  it  may  contain  within  it,  not  only  the  requisite  propor- 
tions of  both  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  constituents 
to  effect  a  given  end,  but  it  may  also  contain  the  requisite 
bulk  that  should  accompany  the  feeding  of  the  nutrients. 

Table  of  feeding  stuffs. — Feeding  stuffs  vary  greatly 
in  their  nutritive  constituents,  that  is,  they  vary  in  the  total 
dry  matter  which  they  contain  and  in  the  proportion  of  the 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  factors,  as  carbohy- 
drates, fat  and  crude  fibre,  and  in  the  proportions  of  these 
that  are  digestible.  They  also  vary  in  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  mineral  matter  which  they  contain,  and  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  factors,  as 
protein,  carbohydrates,  fat  and  crude  fibre,  and  in  the  pro- 
portions of  these  that  are  digestible.  They  further  vary 
in  the  relative  proportions  of  mineral  matter  which  they 
contain.  Information  regarding  the  relative  amounts  of 
each  of  these  factors  have  been  obtained  through  analyses 
made  by  the  chemist  of  the  various  foodstuffs,  and  of  the 
proportions  of  the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  factors 
digestible  in  each  instance.  The  proportion  of  these  that 
are  digestible  have  been  obtained  from  chemical  analyses 
based  upon  actual  experience  in  feeding  the  respective  foods. 
The  great  value  of  such  information  to  the  practical  feeder 
will  be  at  once  apparent.  These  proportions  are  stated  in 
percentages,  and  for  convenience  of  reference  are  collected 
and  given  in  tables  in  orderly  sequence.  Such  a  collection 
is  known  as  a  table  of  feeding  stuffs.  Briefly  then,  a  table 


174^  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

of  feeding  stuffs  is  a  table  giving  the  chemical  constituents 
of  food  expressed  in  percentages.  In  some  instances  these 
tables  only  give  the  relative  proportions  of  the  various  fac- 
tors that  are  digestible.  In  others  the  total  percentages  of 
each  factor  is  also  given. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  these  tables 
are  only  to  be  taken  as  general  guides.  The  chemist  and 
the  scientist  can  ascertain  the  proportionate  percentages  of 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  constituents  in  a  feeding 
stuff  or  in  the  feeding  stuffs  fed  in  a  given  instance.  But  the 
following  influences  among  others  that  may  be  named  lead 
to  variation:  (i)  Plants  of  the  same  variety  differ  in  the 
nutrients  which  they  contain  at  different  stages  of  growth 
and  of  maturity.  (2)  These  percentages  vary  with  the 
inherent  character  of  the  soils  on  which  the  plants  have  been 
grown,  with  the  manures  applied  or  withheld,  and  with  the 
cultivation  given.  (3)  They  further  vary  with  the  time  and 
method  of  harvesting,  with  the  degree  and  nature  of  the  ex- 
posure while  curing  and  in  some  instances  in  the  way  in 
which  they  are  prepared  for  feeding.  Moreover,  (4)  the 
various  classes  of  animals  differ  in  their  ability  to  digest  and 
assimilate  foods,  more  especially  the  crude  fibre,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  individual  animals  of  the  same  class.  These 
tables,  therefore,  are  only  to  be  taken  as  approximate  esti- 
mates of  the  nutrients  which  the  foods  contain.  But  they 
are  reasonably  close  approximations  since  with  the  more  im- 
portant at  least  of  the  foods  the  constituents  submitted  are 
the  averages  of  a  number  of  analyses  and  their  digestibility 
as  stated  represents  as  a  rule  the  average  of  a  number  of 
feeding  trials. 

Table  of  feeding  stuffs. — Feeding  stuffs  vary  greatly 
in  the  more  important  feeding  stuffs  mentioned  in  this  work 
is  now  submitted  and  also  their  digestibility  as  far  as  both 
could  be  obtained  from  American  sources.  This  table  is 
based  on  the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs  as  given  in  the 
revised  edition  of  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  22  issued  by  the  U. 
S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Those  who  desire  to  follow 
the  subject  further  are  referred  to  this  bulletin.  The  figures 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING 


175 


giving  the  digestibility  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs  submit- 
ted are  based  chiefly  upon  the  digestion  trials  conducted  by 
the  experiment  stations  and  compiled  by  Lindsay  in  the  re- 
port of  the  Massachusetts  (Hatch)  Experiment  Station  for 
1896. 

TABLE    I. 

GIVIXG  THE  CONSTITUENTS  OF  THE   ORDINARY  FEEDING  STUFFS  AND 

OF  THEIR  AVERAGE  DIGESTIBILITY. 

Note  1.    The  figures  printed  in  ordinary  type  show  the  percentage 
of  composition  of  each  constituent. 

Note  2.     The  figures   below   in  each   instance   show  the  percent- 
age  of  these   quantities   that  are  digestible. 


Cured    fodders 


Beddoverhay  ......  78.2 

AlBUce  clover  hay....g.3 

Crimson  clover  hay  90.4 
White   clover   hay...  90.3 


||| 

III 


12.4 
12.8 
15.2 
15.7 


»~ 


« 

» 

^2.8 

?2.9 


hay    ......  »4  ^ 

y    ..........  fT  17.0  » 

Soy  bean  hay  ........  8|.7  15.4  U 

Timothy  hay    ........  86.8  5.9  2.5 

57  48  57 

Orchard  grass  hay  00.1  8.1  J.6 

K-ltophay    ........  gl  O  62.7 

M"let    ha-    ..........  f»  65'6  4'1 

Com    fodder    ........  57.8  ^.5  ^.6 

Co™  st°ver   ..........  59.5  U  U 

Sorghum   fodder    ....20.6  1.3  0.5 

67  46  74 

Rye  straw  ..........  92.9  3.0  1.2 

46  21  32 

Wheat  straw  ........  90.4  3.4  1.3 

43  11  31 

Barley  straw  ........  85.8  3.5  1.5 

53  20  "2 

Oat  straw  ...........  90.8  4.0  2.3 

48  30  33 


t     l 


33.8 
40.7 
36.6 
39.3 


36.1 
38.6 

45.0 

bd 

41.0 

46.4 

67° 
34.7 

31.5 

11.6 

74 

46.6 

37 

43.4 

38 

39.0 

54 

42.4 

44 


21.9 
25.6 
27.2 
24.1 


25.4 
22.3 

29.0 

oJ 

32.4 

29.9 


14.3 
19.7 

6.1 

59 

38.9 

60 

38.1 

52 

36.0 

56 

37.0 

54 


8.3 

7'4 
7.5 

4.4 
,9 

3.4 
1.1 

3.2 

4.2 
5.7 
5.1 


•176 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

TABLE  I — Continued 


£o>~ 

{-, 

•*•*  «  ^ 
g  CC-M 

o> 

Food  from  cereals 

^ 

Ic-S 

<D 
•**+> 

•oSego 

u 

J2 

and  other  seeds 

t->  -~ 

VV 

§§3 

£* 

^rll 

Si 

0  « 

8*1 
SgS 

2% 

Ctf  0> 

Illsl 

uj  o«  boa 

<D 

-c 

n 

EH 

£ 

fe 

O 

O 

< 

Wheat     

.89.5 

11  9 

2.1 

71.9 

1.8 

1.8 

72 

70' 

60 

74 

30 

Oats     

.89.0 

11.8 

5.0 

59.7 

9.5 

3.0 

70 

78 

83 

76 

20 

Barley    

89.1 

12,4 

1.8 

69.8 

2.7 

2.4 

86 

70 

89 

92 

50 

Rye     

88.4 

10.6 

1.7 

72.5 

1.7 

1.9 

87 

84 

64 

92 

Peas        

89.5 

20.2 

1.2 

51.1 

14.4 

2.6 

87 

83 

55 

94 

26 

Cottonseed 

90.9 

19.6 

20.1 

28.3 

189 

4.0 

66 

68 

87 

50 

76 

Flax 

90  8 

22.6 

33.7 

23.2 

7  1 

4.3 

77 

91 

86 

55 

61 

Dent  corn 

89  4 

10.3 

5.0 

70.4 

2  2 

1.5 

91 

86 

93 

58 

0) 

35 

g<u 

S-i 
02  C   0> 

•fig 

p  rv 

IH 

^fl^ 

2§c 

0) 

By    Products 

>> 

oS 

.C£- 

-o£S- 

£ 

S| 

l£ 

Srf 

£-o| 

c 

„  •(-> 

d  ctf 
0^ 

^c 

g  03 

£« 

2 
*-s 

ri* 

pfi£ 

So5^ 

"O 

3 

X! 

cc 

H 

fc 

fc 

0 

6 

<j 

W^heat   bran       

88  5 

16.1 

4.5 

54  5 

80 

5.4 

61 

79 

68 

69' 

22 

Wheat    middlings    . 

.87.9 

15.6 

4.0 

60.4 

4.6 

3.3 

79 

82 

85 

85 

36 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

24.3 

5.4 

1.6 

12.5 

3.8 

1.0 

63 

73 

86 

62 

40 

Brewers'  grains,  dry 

92.0 

24.1 

6.7 

44.8 

13.0 

3.4 

62 

79 

91 

59 

53 

Malt   sprouts 

89  8 

23  2 

1  7 

48.5 

10.7 

5.7 

67 

80 

100 

69 

34' 

Corn  and  cob  meal    . 

.84.9 

8.5 

3.5 

64.8 

6.6 

1.5 

79 

52 

84 

88 

45 

Gluten    meal    

91.4 

30.0 

Q    O 

49  2 

2.6 

0.8 

87 

88 

93' 

88 

Gluten  feed   

92.2 

23.4 

8.3 

53.2 

6.2 

1.1 

84 

85 

83 

87 

72 

Oil  cake,  old  process 

90.8 

32.9 

7.9 

35.4 

8.9 

5.7 

79 

89 

89 

78 

57 

Oil  c'ke,  new  pr'cess 

90.1 

35.9 

3.0 

36.8 

8.8 

56 

HO 

85 

93 

84 

74 

Cottonseed  meal    

91.8 

42.3 

13.1 

23.6 

5.6 

7.2 

76 

88 

93 

64 

32 

Cottonseed  hulls   

88.9 

4.2 

2.2 

33.4 

46.3 

2.8 

41 

6 

79 

34 

47 

Whole  cow's   milk... 

12.8 

3.6 

3.7 

4.9 

0.7 

98 

94 

100 

98 

— 

PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  177 

TABLE  I  —  Continued 


- 

Field  roots  §1  |  ||g|  2 

and  tubers  £.  g  fi|        J£|g  g 

Ss     *i      :|  III*     « 

la      Si        s£     505*       g        3 

H  fc  fc  U  0-31 

Sugar    beet    pulp  .....  10.1  1.0  0.2  6.3               2.2              0.4 

82  63  84  83 

Mangels  ...............  8.8  1.4  0.2  5.4               0.8              1.0 

79  75  91  43 

Sugar  beets   ..........  13.3  1.5  0.1  9.9                0.9              0.8 

95  91  50  100  100 

Rutabagas     ..........  11.4  1.2  0.2  7.5               1.3              1.2 

87  80  84  95  74 

Turnips     ..............  9.4  1.3  0.2  5.9                1.2              0.8 

93  90  98  97  100 

Potatoes    ..............  21.3  2.1  0.1  17.3                0.6              LO 

77  44  91 

Nutritive  ratio.  —  By  the  term  nutritive  ratio  is  meant 
a  statement  of  the  proportion  of  the  digestible  nitrogenous 
substance  in  a  feeding  ration  to  the  digestible  proportion  of 
the  non-nitrogenous  substance.  It  is  obtained  by  dividing 
the  total  digestible  non-nitrogenous  substance  in  the  same 
by  the  total  digestible  nitrogenous  substance.  The  total  di- 
gestible nitrogenous  substance  is  simply  the  digestible  pro- 
tein. The  total  digestible  non-nitrogenous  substance  is  the 
sum  of  the  digestible  carbohydrates  other  than  fibre,  of  the 
digestible  crude  fibre,  and  of  2%  times  the  digestible  fat. 
The  digestible  fat  is  multiplied  by  2^4  to  place  it  on  the 
same  basis  as  the  carbohydrates  in  heat  production.  It 
has  been  found  that  although  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  are 
about  equal  for  producing  flesh,  if  one  pound  of  digestible 
fat  is  burned  under  water,  all  the  heat  being  conserved,  it 
will  raise  it  to  the  same  temperature  as  would  2%  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrates  burned  under  similar  conditions. 
Therefore,  the  power  to  produce  heat  is  2j4  times  greater  in 
the  former  than  in  the  latter,  and  this  is  true  of  these  food 
factors  in  the  production  of  heat  in  the  animal  body. 

It  will  be  apparent,  therefore,  that  with  a  table  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  at  hand  giving  the  relative  amounts  of  the  or- 
ganic substances  in  any  food  stuffs  that  are  digestible,  the 


178  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

nutritive  ratio  of  the  same  may  be  easily  computed.  Take 
clover  hay  for  instance,  in  the  table  on  page  175,  the  total 
digestible  nitrogenous  substance  given  in  this  food  is 
0.07688  per  cent,  the  total  digestible  carbohydrates  other 
than  fibre  as  0.23322  per  cent,  crude  fibre  as  0.1073 1  per  cent 
and  fat  as  0.02790  per  cent.  When  the  fat  is  multiplied  by 
2j4  and  added  to  the  carbohydrates  the  sum  of  these  is 
0.40330  per  cent.  When  this  is  divided  by  0.07688,  the  total 
digestible  protein,  the  quotient  is  5.2.  Therefore,  the  nu- 
tritive ratio  in  clover  hay  is  1 15.2.  When  more  than  one 
food  is  combined  in  the  ration,  the  digestible  nitrogenous 
constituents  of  each  must  of  course  be  taken  together  and 
also  all  the  digestible  non-nitrogenous  constituents  when 
ascertaining  the  nutritive  ratio. 

Nutritive  ratios  are  regarded  as  wide  and  narrow  in 
proportion  to  relative  amounts  of  the  digestible  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  which  they  contain.  One 
comparatively  rich  in  nitrogenous  substance  is  spoken  of  as 
narrow,  and  in  non-nitrogenous  substance  as  wide.  For  in- 
stance, skim  milk  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 11.63  and  man- 
gels of  i  :9.2.  The  former  represents  an  unusually  narrow 
ratio  and  the  latter  a  more  than  ordinarily  wide  one. 
Whether  the  ratio  should  be  wide,  narrow  or  intermediate 
to  effect  a  given  end  is  shown  in  the  table  of  feeding  stand- 
ards on  page  184. 

The  great  value  of  the  nutritive  ratio  to  the  practical 
feeder  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  enables  him  to  understand  the 
value  of  the  food  stuffs  which  he  may  have  on  hand  to  ef- 
fect a  given  end.  The  nutritive  ratio  in  itself  would  not  tell 
him  this,  but  when  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  facts 
given  in  correct  feeding  standards  it  does,  as  is  shown  on 
page  182.  Similarly  it  serves  as  a  guide  to  him  in  com- 
pounding food  stuffs  for  feeding,  that  is,  in  determining  the 
approximate  proportions  in  which  they  shall  be  fed. 

Table  II,  given  below,  states  in  pounds  the  dry  matter, 
the  digestible  food  ingredients  and  the  fuel  value  contained 
in  100  pounds  of  the  feeding  stuff  submitted.  The  fuel 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING 


179 


value,  that  is  the  value  of  the  food  to  produce  heat  for  the 
body  and  energy  for  work  is  stated  in  calories.  It  is  taken 
from  Farmer's  Bulletin  No  22,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture : — 

TABLE  II. 


GIVES  THE   DRY   MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE   FOOD    INGREDIENTS    IN 
100    POUNDS    OF    FEEDING    STUFFS. 

Total  dry 

Pro- 

Carbo- 

Fuel 

Feeding    stuff                         matter 

tein  hydrates 

Fat 

value 

Green  fodder: 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

cal'ies 

Corn  fodder  (average  of  all  varieties) 

.20.7 

1.10 

12.08 

0.37 

26,076 

Kafir     corn     fodder     

27.0 

0.87 

13.80 

0.43 

29,101 

Rye   fodder    

.23.4 

2.05 

14.11 

0.44 

31,914 

Oat    fodder    

.37.8 

2.44 

17.99 

0.97 

42,093 

Redtop,  in  bloom   

.34.7 

2.06 

21.24 

0,58 

45,785 

Orchard  grass,   in  bloom    

.27.0 

1.91 

15.91 

058 

35.593 

Meadow   fescue,    in   bloom  

.30.1 

1.49 

16.78 

04?, 

35,755 

Timothy,    at   different   stages    

.38.4 

2.01 

21.22 

0.64 

45,909 

Kentucky  blue  grass   

.34.9 

2.66 

17.78 

0.69 

40,930 

Hungarian    grass    

.28.9 

1.92 

15.63 

0,36 

34,162 

Red  clover,  at  different  stages   

.29.2 

3.07 

14.82 

069 

36,187 

Crimson    clover    

.19.3 

2.16 

9.31 

0.44 

23,191 

Alfalfa,   at  different  stages   

.28.2 

3.89 

11.20 

0.41 

29,798 

Cowpea     

.16.4 

1.68 

8.08 

0.25 

19,209 

Soy  bean  

.28.5 

2.79 

11.82 

0.63 

29,833 

Rape     

.14.3 

2.16 

8.65 

03? 

21,457 

Corn  silage  (recent  analyses)  

.25.6 

1.21 

14.56 

0.88 

33,046 

Corn  fodder,   field  cured   

.57.8 

2.34 

32.34 

1.15 

69,358 

Corn  stover,  field  cured  

595 

1.98 

33.16 

0.57 

67,766 

Kafir  corn  stover,  field  cured  

.80.8 

1.82 

41.42 

0.98 

84,562 

Hay  from— 

Barley     

.89.4 

5.11 

35.94 

1.55 

82,894 

Oats     

84.0 

4.07 

33.35 

1.67 

76,649 

Orchard    grass    

.90.1 

4.78 

41.99 

1.40 

92,900 

Redtop     

.91.1 

4.82 

46.83 

0.95 

100,078 

Timothy   (all  analvses)    

.86.8  . 

2.89 

43.72 

1.43 

92,729 

Kentucky  blue  grass  

.78.8 

4.76 

37.46 

1.99 

86,927 

Hungarian   grass    

.92.3 

4.50 

51.67 

1.34 

110,131 

Meadow   fescue    

.80.0 

4.20 

43.34 

1.73 

95,725 

Mixed   grasses    

.87.1 

4.22 

43.26 

1.33 

93,925 

Rowen   (mixed)    

83.4 

7.19 

41.20 

1.43 

96,040 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover   

.87.1 

6.16 

42.71 

1.46 

97,059 

Red   clover  

84.7 

7.38 

38.15 

1.81 

92,324 

Alsike  clover   

.90.3 

8.15 

41.70 

1.36 

98,460 

White    clover    

90.3 

11.46 

41.82 

.48 

105,346 

Crimson    clover    

91.4 

10.49 

38.13 

.29 

95,877 

Alfalfa  

91.6 

10.58 

37.33 

.38 

94,936 

Cowpea     

89.3 

10.79 

38.40 

.51 

97,865 

Soy  bean   

88.7 

10.78 

38.72 

.54 

98,569 

Wheat    straw     

90.4 

0.37 

36.30 

0.40 

69,894 

Rye  straw  

92.9 

0.63 

40.58 

0.38 

78,254 

Oat   straw    

90.8 

1.20 

38.64 

0.76 

77.310 

Soy  bean  straw   

89.9 

2.30 

39.98 

1.03 

82,987 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Potatoes     

.21.1 

1.36 

16.43 

— 

33,089 

Beets    

.13.0 

1.21 

8.84 

0.05 

18,904 

Mangel-wurzels  

.  9.1 

1.03 

5.65 

0.11 

12,889 

Turnips    

.  9.5 

0.81 

6.46 

0.11 

13,986 

Rutabagas    

.11.4 

0.88 

7.74 

0.11 

16,497 

Carrots     

.11.4 

0.81 

7.83 

0.22 

16,999 

i8o 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


TABLE  II — Continued 


Total  dry  Pro- 

Carbo- 

Fuel 

Feeding    stul                         matter 

tein  hydrates  Fat 

value 

Grains  and  other  seeds: 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

cal'ies 

Corn  (average  of  dent  and  flint)  

.81.1 

7.14 

66.12 

4.97 

157,237 

Kafir  corn   

,X7,5 

5.78 

53.58 

1.33 

116,022 

Barley     ; 

,891 

8.69 

64.83 

1.60 

143,499 

Oats    

890 

9.25 

48.34 

4.18 

124,757 

Rye    

884 

9.12 

69.73 

1.36 

152,400 

Wheat  (all  varieties)   

.89.5 

10.23 

69.21 

1.68 

154,848 

Cotton   seed    (whole)  

.89.7 

11.08 

33.13 

18.44 

160,047 

Mill  products: 

Corn    meal    

.850 

6.26 

65.26 

3.50 

147,797 

Corn-and-cob   meal    

849 

4.76 

60.06 

2.94 

132,972 

Oatmeal     

921 

11.53 

52.06 

5.93 

143,302 

Barley  meal   

.88.1 

7.36 

62.88 

1.96 

138,918 

Ground  corn  and  oats,  equal  parts  .. 

.88.1 

7.01 

61.20 

3.87 

143.202 

Pea   meal    

.89.5 

16.77 

51.78 

0.65 

130,246 

Waste  products: 

Gluten    meal- 

Buffalo    

91  8 

21.56 

43.02 

11.87 

170,210 

Chicago     

905 

33.09 

39.96 

4.75 

155,918 

Hammond     

.91.9 

24.90 

45.72 

10.16 

174,228 

King    

928 

30.10 

35.10 

15.67 

187,399 

Cream  gluten  (recent  analyses)  ... 

.90.4 

30.45 

45.36 

2.47 

151,420 

Gluten  feed  (recent  analyses)   

.91.9 

19.95 

54.22 

5.35 

160,533 

Buffalo    (recent   analyses)    

91  0 

22.88 

51.71 

2.89 

150,933 

Rockford     (Diamond)     

91.3 

20.38 

54.71 

3.82 

155,788 

Hominy  chops    

889 

8.43 

61.01 

7.06 

158,952 

Malt  sprouts    

898 

18.72 

43.50 

1.16 

120,624 

Brewers'  grains  (wet)    , 

243 

4.00 

9.37 

1.38 

30,692 

Brewers'   grains    (dried)  

92.0 

19.04 

31.79 

6.03 

1  19,990 

Distillery    grains     (dried),    principally 

corn     

,93,0 

21.93 

38.09 

10.83 

157,340 

Distillery  grains    (dried),   principally 

rye     

93  2 

10.38 

42.48 

6.38 

125,243 

Atlas     gluten     feed     (distillery     by- 

product)   

92  fi 

23.33 

35.64 

11.88 

159,818 

Rye   bran    88.2 

11.47 

52.40 

1.79 

126,352 

Wheat  bran,   all  analyses    

88.5 

12.01 

41.23 

2.87 

111,138 

Wheat  bran,   (all  analyses)  

88.5 

12.01 

41.23 

2.87 

111,138 

Wheat  middlings   

84.0 

12.79 

53.15 

3.40 

136,996 

Wheat  shorts    

882 

12.22 

49.98 

3.83 

131,855 

Buckwheat  bran  

885 

19.29 

31.65 

4.56 

113,992 

Buckwheat   middlings    

882 

22.34 

36.14 

6.21 

134.979 

Cottonseed  feed  

92.0 

9.65 

38.57 

3.37 

103,911 

Cottonseed    meal    

91.8 

37.01 

16.52 

12.58 

152,653 

Cottonseed  hulls  88.9 

1.05 

32.21 

1.89 

69,839 

Linseed  meal  (old  process)   

90.8 

28.76 

32.81 

7.06 

144,313 

Linseed  meal  (new  process)   

90.1 

30.59 

38.72 

2.90 

141.155 

Sugar  beet  pulp  (fresh)   

10.1 

0.63 

7.12 

— 

14,415 

Sugar  beet  pulp    (dry)  93.6 

6.80 

65.40 

— 

134,45!) 

Milk  and  its  by-products: 

Whole    milk    

128 

3.38 

4.80 

3.70 

30,829 

Skim  milk,  cream  raised  by  setting  .. 

9.6 

3.10 

4.61 

0.90 

18.139 

Skim  milk,  cream  raised  by  separator. 

9.4 

3.01 

5.10 

0.30 

16  351 

Buttermilk     

9.0 

2.82 

4.70 

0.50 

16.097 

Whey     

6.2 

0.56 

5.00 

0.10 

10,764 

Feeding  standard. — A  feeding  standard  is  a  statement 
of  the  proportionate  amounts  of  digestible  nitrogenous  and 
non-nitrogenous  substance  which  experience  has  shown  to 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  T8l 

be  best  suited  to  effect  a  given  purpose  in  feeding. 
The  purposes  sought  are  such  as  maintenance  or  the 
production  of  flesh,  of  fat,  of  milk  or  of  work.  For 
the  sake  of  precision  it  is  usual  to  state  these  amounts 
as  proportions  or  ratios,  and  when  so  expressed  they  are 
spoken  of  as  the  nutritive  ratio  resulting  from  the  foods 
used  in  the  feeding  standards.  A  feeding  standard  differs 
from  a  nutritive  ratio  in  giving  the  proportionate  amounts 
of  the  digestible  food  factors  found  in  the  foods  selected 
from  which  to  form  the  ration,  which  experience  has  shown 
to  be  best  suited  to  the  purpose,  whereas  the  nutritive  ratio 
is  simply  a  statement  of  the  relation  which  these  bear  to  one 
another.  The  first  relates  to  foods  and  their  chemical  con- 
stituents, whereas  the  latter  relates  to  the  quantitative  rela- 
tion which  these  bear  to  one  another. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  a  feeding  standard  that 
has  been  found  suitable  for  the  sufficient  maintenance  of 
cattle  at  rest,  that  is,  cattle  neither  doing  work  nor  laying 
on  flesh  or  fat.  The  amounts  are  calculated  per  day  and  per 
looo  pounds  live  weight. 

Digestible  nitrogenous  substance,  0.7  pounds 

"  carbohydrates,  8.25      " 

fat,  0.15      " 


Total  nutritive  substance,  9.10 

carbohydrates   and  fat  8.4 

Nutritive  ratio,  I  :i2 

Total  organic  dry  matter  required,  17.5 

In  regard  to  the  above  it  will  be  noticed :  ( i )  That  the 
ratio  is  a  wide  one  and  for  the  reason  that  the  animal  is  at 
rest.  Had  the  same  animal  been  producing,  the  ratio  would 
have  to  be  narrowed,  that  is,  it  would  have  to  contain  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  nitrogenous  substance,  and  the 
total  amount  of  nutritive  dry  substance  required  would 


1 82  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

have  to  be  greater.  (2)  That  the  standard  supposes  a  mod- 
erately warm  stable.  Exposure  to  cold  would  call  for  the 
use  of  more  carbohydrates  as  fuel  food.  (3)  That  the  to- 
tal amount  of  dry  matter  required  by  the  standard  should 
be  bulky,  which  means  that  it  may  contain  a  considerable 
proportion  of  crude  fibre.  (4)  That  the  quantities  of  the 
food  factors  fed  are  calculated  for  an  animal  of  1000 
pounds  weight,  which  implies  that  with  variation  in  the 
weight  of  the  animals,  the  quantities  fed  would  vary,  but 
not  necessarily  in  exact  proportion  to  the  variations  in 
weight,  since  smaller  animals  require  in  proportion  more 
food  than  large  ones  owing  to  the  greater  proportionate 
loss  of  heat  in  them.  (5)  That  if  the  animals  were  being 
fattened,  the  proportion  of  digestible  fat  in  the  food  should 
be  increased,  but  not  to  the  extent  of  disturbing  digestion. 

The  explanation  now  follows  of  how  such  a  ration  may 
be  compounded.  Being  a  wide  one  it  will  be  low  in  protein 
and  must  also  be  bulky.  Such  a  ration  is  likely  to  result 
from  straw  alone  or  from  straw  and  some  hay.  Since  it  is 
to  be  fed  to  animals  at  rest,  it  is  important  that  it  shall  be 
inexpensive  and,  therefore,  that  the  proportion  of  straw  fed 
shall  not  be  large.  Suppose  that  the  feeder  has  both.  He 
knows  that  he  requires  about  17.5  pounds  of  to^al  dry  or- 
ganic matter  (see  p.  181).  By  consulting  the  table  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  on  page  175  a  little  calculation  will  show  him  that 
about  21  or  22  pounds  of  these  feeding  stuffs  will  give  him 
approximately  that  amount  if  he  uses  about  twice  as  much 
straw  as  hay.  This  he  ought  to  do  to  make  the  ration 
inexpensive. 

He  tries,  say  15  pounds  of  oat  straw  and  7  pounds 
of  clover  hay  and  the  problem  works  out  as  follows : 

15  pounds  of  oat  straw  would  yield 

15x90.8-100  pounds  of  dry  matter  or   13.620  pounds 

7  pounds  of  clover  hay  would  yield 

7x78.2-100  pounds  of  dry  matter  or,     5.474       " 


PRINCIPLES     THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  183 

Total  dry  matter  in  the  ration,  19.094        " 

Again : 

15  pounds  of  oat  straw  would  yield 
15x4-100x30-100  of  digestible  ni- 
trogenous substances  or,  0.1800  " 

7  pounds  of  clover  hay  would  yield 
7x12.4-100x62-100  of  digestible 
nitrogenous  substance  or,  0.53816  " 

Total  amount  of  digestible  nitrog- 
enous substance,  0.71816    " 

Similarly,  the  15  pounds  of  oat  straw  will  yield: 
Digestible    fat  .11385x2^  0.25616    " 

Digestible   carbohydrates   other 
than  fibre,  2.79840    " 

Digestible  fibre,  2.99700    " 

Total  amount  of  digestible  non-ni- 
trogenous substance  in  the  straw,  6.05156    " 

And  the  7  pounds  of  clover  hay  will  yield : 

Digestible  fat,  .19530x2^,  0.43942    " 

Digestible   carbohydrates   other 
than  fibre,  1.63254    " 

Digestible  fibre,  0.75117    " 


Total  amount  of  digestible  non-ni- 
trogenous substance  in  the  hay.  2.82313     " 

Therefore,  the  total  amount  of  the  digestible  non-ni- 
trogenous substance  in  the  ration  is  8.8746^  >  pounds  and  the 
ratio  of  digestible  nitrogenous  substance  to  digestible  non- 
nitrogenous  substance  in  the  ration  is  as  0.71816  to  8.87469 
or  i :  12.3.  The  ratio  thus  obtained  is  a  little  too  wide  and 
may  be  narrowed  by  reducing  somewhat  the  amount  of 
straw  fed  which  would  also  make  it  conform  more  nearly 
to  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter  required  in  such  a  ration. 

Feeding  standards. — A  table  of  feeding  standards  is 
simply  a  collection  of  feeding  standards  stated  in  a  regular 


'184  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

and  concise  order.  It  usually  relates  to  the  feeding  of  va- 
rious classes  of  animals  at  different  ages  and  from  which 
different  kinds  of  performance  are  required.  Although  the 
form  of  expression  in  those  standards  varies,  they  usually 
contain  the  following: 

1.  The  total  dry  organic  substance, 

2.  The  total  digestible  nitrogenous  substance, 

3.  The     total     digestible     non-nitrogenous     substance 
which  includes, 

(a)  The  total  digestible  carbohydrates  including  fi- 
bre ;  and, 

(b)  The  total  digestible  fat. 

4.  The  total  nutritive  substance,  and, 

5.  The  nutritive  ratio  resulting. 

The  following  table  of  feeding  standards  is  taken  from 
that  portion  of  "First  Principles  of  Agriculture"  credited  to 
the  author  and  published  in  1891.  It  is  virtually  identical 
with  the  standard  given  by  Armsby  in  his  book  "Cattle 
Feeding." 

TABLE   III. 

GIVING   FEEDING   STANDARDS. 

(Calculated  per  day  and  per  1000  pounds  li  re  weight.) 

Non-nitrogenous 
sinbstance 


4)  2   ni!« 

^  ^   <i>  ^ 


1  12 
1    9 

1    8 

1    7.5 
6 
7 

5.5 
54 
6.5 
5.5 
6 

5.5 
4.5 


1    Cattle    at  rest  in  stall       

ill 

O  to-^- 

EH 
Ibs 
..17.5 

p  to  '. 

si=< 

O  £   WN. 

EH 
Ibs 
0.7 

1.2 

1.5 
1.6 
2.4 
1.8 
2.8 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
3.0 
3.5 

3    -11 

5  $«% 

"  o  o  £ 
EH 
Ibs 
8.25 

10.6 

11.75 
11.7 
13.9 
12.0 
14.6 
13.1 
15.75 
15.8 
15.6 
16.0 
15.15 

£ 

tn 
bJO 

5 

Ibs 
0.15 

0.2 

0.25 
0.3 
0.5 
0.6 
0.8 
0.4 
0.5 
0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 

Is 

Ibs 
9.1 

12.0 

13.5 
13.6 
16.8 
14.4 
18.2 
16.0 
18.75 
19.5 
18.9 
19.5 
19.25 

2,  Sheep,  producing  wool  (coarse 
wool    breeds) 

..20.0 

Sheep,     producing    wool     (fine 
wool    breeds) 

22  5 

3,  Oxen,   moderately   worked    — 
Oxen     heavily    worked 

..24.0 
26  0 

4,  Horses,   moderately  worked    .. 
Horses  heavily  worked   

..22.5 
..25.5 

5    Milch    cows    ....        

..24.0 

6,  Cattle,   fattening  (1st  period).. 
Cattle,   fattening,   (2d  period).. 
Cattle,    fattening    (3d   period).. 
7,  Sheep,    fattening   (1st   period).. 
Sheep,  fattening  (2d  period)   .. 

.27.0 
.26.0 
.25.0 
.26 
.25 

PRINCIPLES     THAT     GOVERN     FEEDING 


18; 


TABLE  III — Continued 


Non-nitrogenous 
substance 


edS  ?1 

"  flgc 

w 

0> 

§ 

§ 

"  o  °-5 
EH 

5 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

8, 

Swine,   fattening   (1st  period).., 

,.36.0 

5.0 

27.5 

Swine,    fattening    (2d    period).. 

..31.0 

4.0 

24.0 

Swine,    fattening    (3d   period).., 

,.23.5 

2.7 

17.5! 

i 

!), 

Cattle  growing: 

Age  in       Average  live  wt     . 

months             per  head 

2-  3                    165  Ibs 

23.0 

4.0 

16.8 

2.0 

3-  6                     325  Ibs 

23.4 

3.2 

15.0 

1.0 

6-12                     550  Ibs 

24.0 

2.5 

14.4 

0.6 

12-18                     750  Ibs 

24.0 

2.0 

13.6 

0.4 

18-24                     925  Ibs 

24.0 

1.6 

12.5 

0.3 

10, 

Sheep  growing: 

Age  in       Average  live  wt 

months             per  head 

5-  6                      62  Ibs 

28.0 

3.2 

16.8 

0.8 

6-  8                      74  Ibs 

25.0 

2.7 

14.52 

0.6 

8-11                       83  Ibs 

23.0 

2.1 

12.1 

0.5 

11-15                      91  Ibs 

22.5 

1.7 

11.5 

0.4 

15-20                      95  Ibs 

22.0 

1.4 

10.9 

0.3 

11, 

Swine,   growing  and  fattening 

; 

Age  in       Average  live  wt 

months             per  head 

2-  3                     50  Ibs 

42.0 

7.5 

30.0 

3-  5                    110  Ibs 

34.0 

5.0 

25.0 

5-  6                    137  Ibs 

31.5 

4.3 

23.6E 

1 

6-  8                     187  Ibs 

27.0 

3.4 

20.4 

8-12                    275  Ibs 

21.0 

2.5 

16.2 

o  « 
EH 

Ibs 
32.5 

28.0 
20.25 


22.8 
19.2 
17.5 
16.0 
14.4 


20.8 

17.82 

14.7 

13.6 

12.6 


37.5 

30.0 

27.95 

23.8 

18.75 


I 

1:  5.5 
1:  6 
1:  6.5 


1:  4.7 
1:  5 
1:  6 
1:  7 
1:  8 


1:  5.5 
1:  5.6 
1:  6 
1:  7 
1:  8 


1:4 
1:  5 
1:  5.5 
1:  6 
1:  6.5 


Note— The  weights  given  above  represent  German  pounds,  each  of 
which  is  equal  to  1  1-10  pounds  avoirdupois.  Practically  this  fact  is  of 
but  little  importance  since  the  weights  of  the  animals  and  of  the  foods 
given  are  relative. 

A  careful  study  of  the  table  of  feeding  standards  will 
abundantly  repay  the  labor  thus  expended.  The  truths 
which  it  teaches  with  reference  to  practical  feeding1  are 
many  and  far-reaching.  Prominent  among  them  are  the 
following : 

i.  That  for  the  maintenance  of  animals  at  rest,  the  nu- 
tritive ratios  are  the  widest.  For  any  kind  of  production, 
animals  need  more  food  and  of  a  more  nitrogenous  charac- 
ter. The  additional  quantity  of  food  required  is  principally 


l86  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

for  the  production  of  heat,  and  the  additional  nitrogenous 
food  for  the  production  of  muscular  tissue  or  of  muscular 
exertion. 

2.  From  an  examination  of  9,  10,  and  n  in  the  table, 
it  will  be  noticed  that  for  all  growing  animals  the  nutritive 
ratios  are  narrow  and  that  the  younger  the  animal  is,  the 
narrower  is  the  ratio,  for  the  reason  that  for  the  devel- 
opment of  all  the   important   parts   of   the   animal,   nitrog- 
enous food  is  absolutely  essential  and  in  sufficient  supply  to 
secure  the  necessary  development  needed  above  what  will  be 
oxidized  and  excreted. 

3.  While  for  animals  at  rest  but  a  small  amount  of  fat 
is  required,  it  must  be  increased  very  considerably  for  ani- 
mals working  or  fattening,  for  the  reason  in  the  one  case 
that  heat  is  required  which  the  fat  readily  supplies  and  in 
the  other  that  fat  in  the  food  conduces  both  directly  and 
indirectly  to  the  formation  of  body  fat. 

4.  An  examination  of  the  total  nutritive  substance  as 
given  in  the  table  which  appertains  to  the  growing  of  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  swine  respectively,  will   show  that  the  total 
nutritive  substance  set  down  as  being  required  for  each  age 
given  per    1000   pounds   live    weight,    decreases    relatively 
more  or  less  rapidly  with  advancing  age  in  the  animal.   But 
with  it  the  relative  increase  made  decreases  even  more  rap- 
idly (see  p.  371).     This  indicates  the  great  importance  of 
securing,  during  the  whole  time  of  the  animal's  develop- 
ment, the  largest  increase  consistent  with  economy. 

5.  Cattle  that  are  reduced  in  flesh  and  fat  cannot  at 
once  be  quickly  fattened  as  before  quick  fattening  can  fol- 
low, the  animals  to  be  fattened  must  possess  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  both  organized  and  circulatory  protein  before 
they  are  capable  of  rapidly  storing  up  the  protein  and  fat 
of  the  food  as  new  fat  (see  p.  377). 

6.  The  proportion  of  fat  and  also  the  proportion  of  the 
same  in  the  standard  ration  for  milch  cows  is  less  than  in 
the  rations  for  fattening.     Since  the  fat  of  the  ration  does 
not  increase  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk,  but   it  does 


PRINCIPLES      THAT      GOVERN      FEEDING  187 

slightly  increase  the  quantity  of  milk  by  protecting  some 
of  the  nitrogenous  substance  of  the  food  from  oxidation 
and  increasing  the  amount  available  for  the  formation  of 
cells  in  the  milk  glands. 

7.  The  nutritive  ratio  for  the   food  of  milch  cows  is 
comparatively  narrow.  The  explanation  is  first,   that  pro- 
tein is  necessary  for  the  production  of  dry  substance  in  the 
milk;  and  second,  that  within  certain  limits  the  percentage 
of  the  dry  substance  will  be  increased  with  an  increase  of 
the  nitrogenous  substance  in  the  food. 

8.  Sheep  require  relatively  more  fodder  than  larger  an- 
imals and  fodder  with  a  relatively  narrower  nutritive  ratio, 
both  for  maintenance  at  rest  and   in   fattening.     They   can 
bear  a  more  concentrated    food   than   cattle   and   the    food 
should  be  less  watery.     For  the  production  of  wool  only,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  keep  the    animals    in    good    condition, 
hence  an  excess  of  nitrogenous  food  would  be  waste  when 
wool  is  the  sole  or  even  principal  object  sought. 

9.  Swine  eat  much  more  food  relatively  than  other  an- 
imals, especially  during  the  early  stages  of  growth  and  fat- 
tening, and  they  increase  in  weight  correspondingly.     But 
in  both  respects  their  ability  to  increase  in  relative  weight 
diminishes  with  advancing  age  and  with  advancement  in  the 
fattening  period. 

10.  Horses  that  work  severely  call  for  not  only  a  pro- 
portionate increase  in  the  amount  of  the  food,  but  they  also 
require    food    with    a    greater    proportion    of    nitrogenous 
constituents. 

Notwithstanding  the  valuable  assistance  which  these 
tables  render  to  the  feeder  in  choosing  and  balancing  ra- 
tions suitable  to  the  needs  of  the  animals  fed,  the  fact  re- 
mains, that  rations  balanced  from  the  standpoint  of  chem- 
ical analysis  are  only  to  be  considered  as  approximate  rather 
than  as  absolute  guides.  The  following  influences  among 
others  may  lead  to  variations  in  the  results  from  feeding 
rations  so  balanced :  ( I )  The  inherent  and  cultivated  appe- 
tites of  animals  to  take  the  same  food  vary  greatly  and 


1 88  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

these  variations  produce  corresponding  variations  in  the  re- 
sults from  feeding  the  same  foods.  (2)  The  inherent  power 
of  animals  of  the  same  age  and  class  to  digest  certain 
foods  also  varies  greatly,  and  with  these  variations  the  re- 
sults obtained  will  correspondingly  vary.  (3)  Foods  vary 
in  their  digestibility  with  variations  in  the  soils  on  which 
they  grew,  and  with  the  mechanical  and  chemical  condition 
of  the  same,  also  with  the  degree  of  the  development  and 
maturity,  hence  the  constituents  of  these  will  not  be  in  strict 
accord  with  the  chemical  analyses  given  in  feeding  stand- 
ards. (4)  Some  foods  have  a  physiological  influence  which 
is  favorable  or  adverse  to  digestion,  and  this  influence  will 
lead  to  even  important  variations  from  feeding  rations  in 
equal  chemical  balance.  (5)  Adaptation  or  the  want  of 
this  in  the  relative  proportion  of  bulky  food  and  concen- 
trates fed,  will  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  results  ob- 
tained from  feeding  them.  And  (6)  the  degree  of  succu- 
lence in  the  ration  has  also  a  modifying  influence. 


ART  III. 

The  more  important  of  the  foods  grown  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  are  discussed  in  Part  III;  also  their 
preparation  for  feeding.  The  discussion  of  the  various  sub- 
jects is  in  the  following  order:  Chapter  XI  discusses  food 
from  cured  fodders;  Chapter  XII,  food  from  cereals  and 
other  seeds;  Chapter  XIII,  food  from  by-products;  Chapter 
XIV,  food  from  pastures ;  and  Chapter  XV,  food  from  field 
roots  and  tubers.  Chapter  XVI  dwells  briefly  on  preparing 
foods  for  feeding. 


^  I 

n 

s  ! 

3    I 


CHAPTER  XL 
FOOD  FROM  CURED  FODDERS. 

The  term  fodders,  as  used  in  this  chapter,  means 
bulky  foods  such  as  hay,  corn  and  sorghum  stalks,  also 
straw  of  the  various  small  cereals.  The  necessity  for  feed- 
ing cured  fodders  is  usually  proportionate  to  the  length  of 
the  winter,  but  under  no  conditions  can  their  use  be  entirely 
dispensed  with.  Cured  fodders  only  are  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter XI.  Fodders  are  also  frequently  fed  in  the  green  form. 
Those  who  desire  further  information  in  regard  to  feeding 
them  thus  are  referred  to  the  book  "Soiling  Crops  and  the 
Silo,"  by  the  author.  The  leguminous  fodders  discussed 
are:  (i)  Clover  hay;  (2)  alfalfa  hay;  (3)  cowpea  hay;  (4) 
hay  from  vetches,  and  (5)  bean  hay.  Those  derived  from 
the  grasses  proper  are:  (i)  Timothy  hay  and  (2)  hay  from 
grasses  other  than  timothy.  Those  derived  from  small 
grain  bearing  plants  are:  (i)  Hay  from  the  small  cereals, 
(2)  hay  from  cereals  mixed  and  (3)  millet  hay.  Those  de- 
rived from  corn  and  the  sorghums  are :  ( i )  Corn  fodder ; 
(2)  sorghum  fodder  and  (3)  non-saccharine  sorghum  fod- 
der. Lastly,  the  discussion  of  straw  as  fodder  includes 
straw  furnished  by  all  the  small  cereals. 

Clover  hay. — In  one  or  another  of  its  varieties,  clo- 
ver may  be  grown  with  more  or  less  success  in  nearly  all 
the  arable  areas  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  but  it  has 
higher  adaptation  lelatively  to  conditions  North,  rather  than 
South.  Its  distribution  is  wider  and  much  more  general 
than  that  of  alfalfa  since  it  may  be  grown  on  a  greater 
variety  of  soils.  It  may  be  designated  the  standard  fodder 
crop  of  the  farms  of  the  United  States,  and  also  of  much 
of  Canada,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  it  will  ever  become 
greatly  popular  when  fed  away  from  the  farm.  This  is 
owing  first,  to  the  extent  to  which  the  leaves  are  lost  while 

191 


IQ2  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

it  is  being  handled  in  transportation ;  second,  to  the  dust  it 
frequently  contains,  the  outcome  of  curing  too  little  or  too 
much  before  it  is  stored,  and  third,  to  the  fact  that  it  is  less 
satisfactory  than  timothy  on  the  whole  as  a  fodder  for 
horses. 

The  varieties  of  clover  chiefly  grown  differ  from  each 
other  in  feeding  value,  but  the  elements  of  difference  are 
physical  rather  than  chemical.  The  common  red,  the  stand- 
ard clover  grown,  is  of  medium  fineness  in  both  the  cut- 
tings, which  are  commonly  obtained  the  same  season.  The 
mammoth  variety  has  stems  so  coarse  that  the  waste  in 
feeding  may  be  considerable.  The  alsike,  of  fine  growth, 
is  usually  fed  with  little  waste.  White  clover  with  its  small 
stems  and  leaves  adds  comparatively  little  to  the  bulk  of  the 
ordinary  meadow.  Crimson  clover  has  a  relatively  large 
proportion  of  stem  and  the  stems  soon  become  woody, 
hence,  as  a  hay,  it  is  not  so  popular  as  the  medium  red  or 
the  alsike.  Moreover,  the  stems  are  covered  with  hairs, 
and  in  these,  on  hay  made  from  clover  well  advanced  to- 
ward maturity  before  cutting,  the  danger  is  present,  that 
when  fed  to  horses,  the  hairs  will  gather  into  balls  in  the  di- 
gestive tract  and  so  lead  to  impaction.  Japan  clover,  used 
for  hay  to  some  extent  in  the  South,  has  proved  about  equal 
to  Bermuda  hay  as  food  for  cows.  It  would  probably  be 
correct  to  say,  that  clover  provides  more  hay  for  live  stock, 
and  especially  for  cattle  and  sheep,  than  all  other  legumes 
taken  together.  Its  preeminence  in  this  respect  is  owing 
to  the  wide  range  in  its  distribution,  its  high  palatability, 
and  the  richness  of  its  nutrients. 

For  cattle,  clover  hay  is  excellently  adapted  to  their 
needs  owing  to  the  relish  with  which  it  is  eaten  and  to  the 
equilibrium  in  its  nutrients.  It  is  virtually  in  itself  a  balanced 
food  for  them,  especially  for  making  growth  and  producing 
milk,  but,  owing  to  its  bulkiness,  concentrates  are  fre- 
quently fed  along  with  it  for  making  quick  growth  and  are 
commonly  always  fed  along  with  it  when  seeking  abundant 
milk  production  or  rapid  fattening.  No  better  fodder  can 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDER'S  1 93 

be  given  to  calves,  when  the  clover  has  been  cut  while 
young  and  tender.  So  excellent  is  it  for  such  feeding  that, 
where  practicable,  a  supply  of  it  should  be  specially  stored 
for  such  feeding  by  those  who  need  it.  Like  alfalfa  it  has 
high  adaptation  for  being  fed  along  with  corn  in  fattening 
cattle.  Since  clover,  however,  is  not  quite  so  rich  in  pro- 
tein as  alfalfa,  some  concentrate  rich  in  protein  should  be 
added,  though  in  limited  quantity.  Oil  cake,  gluten  meal 
or  cottonseed  meal  are  very  suitable.  When  it  forms  the 
sole  fodder  ration  for  cows  in  milk,  as  much  as  half  the 
concentrate  fed  may  be  corn,  but  in  proportion  as  corn 
fodder  or  corn  stover  is  substituted  for  clover,  the  propor- 
tion of  the  corn  fed  should  be  decreased. 

For  sheep,  clover  of  fine  growth  and  well  harvested  is 
particularly  excellent.  Its  value  for  such  feeding  is  les- 
sened in  proportion  as  it  is  coarse,  over  ripe  when  cut  or 
over  dried  when  cured.  For  breeding  ewes,  good  clover 
hay  alone  may  furnish  a  sufficient  ration  in  itself  until  the 
lambing  season.  When  it  forms  the  sole  fodder  part  of  the 
ration,  it  is  not  necessary  to  add  much  protein  to  corn  when 
fed  as  the  concentrate,  but  5  to  10  per  cent  of  such  food 
as  oil  cake  will  prove  helpful. 

In  feeding  swine,  especially  in  winter,  clover  nay  may 
be  made  to  serve  a  useful  purpose ;  first,  as  a  source  of  pro- 
tein and  second,  to  give  distension  to  the  digestive  organs. 
It  is  particularly  valuable  in  feeding  brood  sows  to  which 
such  carbonaceous  foods  as  corn  and  rye  are  being  fed.  It 
is  frequently  fed  simply  as  hay,  but  the  ration  is  improved 
by  chaffing  the  hay,  adding  the  meal  and  steaming  the  mix- 
ture. Such  food,  however,  should  not  be  fed  to  swine  be- 
ing fattened. 

For  horses,  clover  has  been  assigned  a  lower  place 
than  is  meet  for  such  a  fodder.  This  is  owing  chiefly  to 
the  dust  so  frequently  found  in  it,  as  the  result  of  over  or 
of  under-curing  at  the  time  of  storing.  This  dust,  penetrat- 
ing the  lungs  of  horses  to  which  such  hay  is  fed  for  a  pro- 
longed period,  is  much  liable  to  produce  heaves.  It  is  also 


194  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

claimed  and  probably  with  truth,  that  working  horses  fed 
on  it  are  liable  to  sweat  more  than  horses  fed  timothy  or  na- 
tive hay.  Nevertheless,  it  furnishes  fodder  quite  suitable  for 
foals  and  brood  mares  when  it  is  of  good  quality.  The  pre- 
judice to  feeding  well  made  hay  composed  of  timothy  with 
a  goodly  sprinkling  of  clover  in  it,  is  not  well  founded,  as 
the  clover  really  adds  to  the  feeding  value  of  the  hay. 

Alfalfa  hay  is  the  principal  reliance  for  hay  in  all  the 
mountain  states  of  the  West.  In  the  states  of  the  Central 
West,  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  semi-arid  region,  it 
is  also  extensively  grown  for  fodder,  and  in  sections  of  va- 
rious other  states,  its  growth  is  extending  more  or  less  rap- 
idly. As  hay  it  is  usually  fed  in  the  uncut  form,  but  when 
run  through  a  cutting  box  and  mixed  with  cut  straw,  it  in- 
sures a  much  larger  consumption  of  the  latter.  Recently  a 
preparation  has  been  made  from  it  known  as  alfalmo  which 
consists  of  alfalfa  hay,  fine  in  character,  cut  early,  cured  in 
good  form  and  ground  more  or  less  finely.  It  is  sometimes 
fed  to  young  calves  when  started  on  fodder.  The  value  of 
alfalfa  hay  is  largely  dependent  on  the  stage  of  growth  at 
which  it  is  cut,  and  on  the  nature  of  the  curing.  Alfalfa 
cut,  when,  say  one-fifth  of  the  blossoms  have  appeared  and 
cured  without  loss  of  leaves  or  exposure  to  rain,  may  be 
fully  50  per  cent  more  valuable  than  alfalfa  cured  under 
opposite  conditions.  When  the  conditions  of  growing  and 
curing  are  correct,  alfalfa  is  somewhat  more  valuable  as  a 
fodder  than  the  clovers  but  if  the  stems  have  become  woody 
before  it  is  cut,  and  if  in  addition  many  of  the  leaves  are 
lost  in  the  curing,  its  feeding  value  may  be  much  less  than 
that  of  well  made  clover  hay. 

For  cattle,  alfalfa  hay  properly  made  is  unexcelled. 
Cattle  are  very  fond  of  this  fodder.  It  is  easily  masticated 
and  digested,  is  fed  with  but  little  waste,  and  is  very  rich  in 
protein.  Hay  made  from  it,  of  thick  growth  and  cut  early, 
makes  unexcelled  fodder  for  calves.  Young  cattle  will 
come  through  the  winter  in  good  form  on  alfalfa  alone,  and 
will  also  make  a  good  growth.  It  has  special  adaptation 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  195 

for  being  fed  to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened  along  with 
carbonaceous  food  such  as  corn.  When  corn  is  virtually 
the  exclusive  grain  ration  fed,  alfalfa  is  so  far  superior  as 
roughage  to  corn  or  sorghum,  that  feeding  it  should  effect 
a  saving  of  not  less  than  33  per  cent  in  the  grain  fed.  Its 
large  protein  content  makes  it  highly  suitable  for  pregnant 
cows  or  cows  in  milk.  When  fed  to  the  latter  as  the  sole 
fodder,  fully  50  per  cent  of  the  grain  fed  may  be  corn. 

For  sheep,  it  is  quite  as  valuable  as  for  cattle.  Sheep 
grown  chiefly  upon  it  like  cattle  similarly  grown,  attain  to 
a  relatively  large  size.  Breeding  ewes  may  be  successfully 
wintered  on  alfalfa  of  good  quality  without  grain,  up  to 
the  season  for  lambing.  As  when  fattening  cattle,  it  should 
effect  a  saving  of  fully  33  per  cent  in  the  grain  ration  when 
fed  to  sheep. 

As  swine  fodder,  when  of  good  quality,  alfalfa  hay  is 
frequently  fed  to  brood  sows  in  the  winter  and  also  to  other 
swine,  but  is  relatively  more  suitable  for  the  former  be- 
cause of  its  bulkiness.  In  some  instances  it  is  fed  as  hay, 
in  others  in  the  cut  form  and  in  admixture  with  meal, 
steamed  or  not  steamed,  but  preferably  steamed  where  the 
cost  involved  is  not  excessive.  The  leaves  are  much  prized 
for  such  feeding  when  they  accumulate  sufficiently  for  such 
a  use.  In  corn  and  alfalfa  growing  areas,  alfalfa  hay  may 
be  made  to  furnish  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
ration  for  swine  in  winter. 

For  horses. — In  some  sections,  as  in  areas  where  alfalfa 
grows  very  abundantly  and  the  grasses  grow  less  abun- 
dantly, alfalfa  furnishes  the  chief  fodder  fed  to  horses.  It 
has  been  found  very  suitable  for  colts,  horses  that  are  idle 
and  also  for  brood  mares  both  when  carrying  and  nursing 
their  foals.  As  it  is  more  or  less  laxative  when  fed  to 
horses  driven  faster  than  a  walk,  it  produces  too  much 
looseness  in  the  bowels,  especially  at  first.  Alfalfa  hay  and 
corn  furnish  a  more  suitable  food  for  horses  than  timothy 
and  corn,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  nutrients,  since  it 
is  in  better  balance.  Tests  have  shown  that  horses  will 


196  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

maintain  flesh  better  on  alfalfa  hay  than  on  timothy  hay. 
Like  clover,  unless  due  care  is  taken  in  curing  it,  the  hay  is 
much  liable  to  be  dusty;  this  lowers  its  value  much  as  a 
food  for  horses  which  soon  become  very  fond  of  it  and  may 
eat  it  to  excess. 

Cowpea  hay,  not  required  in  the  North  because  of 
the  large  number  of  other  hay  plants  that  may  be  grown, 
is  very  commonly  made  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  South. 
No  other  plant  in  the  South  of  equal  value  for  hay  is  grown 
over  so  wide  an  area.  In  many  of  its  varieties  it  may  be 
grown  for  hay  after  the  removal  of  a  crop  grown  previ- 
ously the  same  season.  It  furnishes  hay  of  high  quality 
viewed  from  the  standpoints  of  palatability  and  nutrition. 
When  well  cured,  live  stock  relish  it  quite  as  much  as,  or 
even  more  than  alfalfa,  and  in  nutrients  it  is  very  similar. 
The  yields  average  about  two  tons  an  acre  and  run  all  the 
way  from  one-half  ton  to  five  tons.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  two  tons  of  cowpea  hay  an  acre  will  furnish  in  total 
digestible  nutrients  more  than  a  similar  area  yielding  40 
bushels  of  oats  or  30  bushels  of  corn.  But  the  curing  of 
cowpea  hay  is  somewhat  difficult,  and  in  some  varieties  it 
is  not  easily  handled  because  of  the  running  character  of 
the  vines. 

By  cattle,  cowpea  hay  is  not  only  relished,  but  for 
growing  cattle,  no  fodder  in  the  South  is  superior  to  it.  In 
fattening  cattle  it  feeds  well  along  with  corn  stover  or  corn 
fodder,  but  its  highest  use  in  the  South  as  food  for  stock, 
is  found  in  producing  milk.  For  this  purpose  it  has  proved 
fully  equal  to  alfalfa  and  somewhat  superior  to  clover  hay 
and  has  been  claimed  to  be  even  superior  to  corn  silage. 
The  value  of  the  hay  for  such  feeding  is  much  influenced 
by  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  the  crop  is  cut.  Hay  with 
grain  well  advanced  toward  maturity  is  more  valuable  for 
fattening  cattle  than  hay  cut  during  the  period  even  of 
medium  bloom  and  it  is  much  more  easily  cured,  but  it  may 
lose  something  in  palatability.  For  the  silo,  they  should 
be  reasonably  well  advanced  before  being  harvested. 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  19; 

In  feeding  sheep  and  lambs,  cowpea  hay,  though  not 
much  used  because  of  the  relatively  small  amount  of  such 
feeding  done  in  the  South,  has  high  adaptation.  Of  course, 
hay  produced  by  the  finer  growing  varieties  is  more  valu- 
able than  what  is  bulky.  What  is  said  about  the  value 
of  vetch  hay  for  fattening  sheep  (see  p.  198)  will  apply 
about  equally  to  cowpea  hay.  If  additional  grain  were  ad- 
ded, corn,  barley,  rye  and  even  oats  would  prove  very  suit- 
able. For  milk  production,  cowpea  hay  cut,  say  when  the 
plants  are  in  the  late  stages  of  bloom,  should  answer  well 
for  ewes  nursing  lambs. 

For  szvine,  cowpea  hay  is  not  well  adapted,  owing  to 
the  relatively  small  amount  of  the  vine  consumed,  except 
when  the  crop  has  been  cut  at  an  early  stage  of  growth.  But 
when  it  has  been  harvested  at  maturity  and  the  fodder 
much  injured  by  rain,  it  may  be  in  order  to  feed  the  loose 
sheaves  or  bundles  to.  swine  that  will  search  out  and  con- 
sume the  peas. 

-For  horses. — This  hay  is  considerably  prized  in  the 
South,  not  only  for  feeding  brood  mares,  weanling  foals 
and  indeed  all  young  horses  of  the  draught  types  and  also 
of  the  standard  bred  classes.  Such  food  adds  to  the  size. 
For  working  horses  and  mules  it  serves  about  the  same 
purposes  as  alfalfa  (see  p.  195)  and  answers  well  for  being 
fed  with  a  grain  ration  consisting  of  corn  and  oats.  As 
with  vetch  hay,  more  or  less  dust  is  likely  to  be  present. 
This,  of  course,  is  so  far  objectionable. 

Hay  from  vetches. — Vetches  are  frequently  grown 
for  hay,  but  more  commonly  in  conjunction  with  one  of  the 
small  cereals  in  order  to  furnish  them  the  support  neces- 
sary to  prevent  them  from  falling  on  the  ground  during 
the  later  stages  of  growth.  For  this  purpose  rye  is  some- 
times sown,  but  more  commonly  the  cereal  of  support  is 
wheat  or  oats.  Hay  from  these  is  more  relished  than  hay 
from  rye.  Vetch  hay  is  thus  grown  from  the  winter  and 
spring  varieties  of  the  common  vetch  and  also  from  the 
sand  or  hairy  vetch.  Such  hay  is  grown  to  a  considerable 


198  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

extent  in  the  Pacific  states,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the 
South.  In  the  former  large  yields  of  hay  are  obtained  es- 
pecially from  the  common  vetch  which  is  highly  nutritious 
and  is  much  relished  by  stock.  The  feeding  value  is  much 
influenced  by  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  it  is  cut.  The 
more  grain  the  hay  possesses  and  the  more  mature  it  is  up 
to  the  limit  of  not  lessening  the  palatability  of  the  plant,  the 
more  valuable  is  it  for  fodder. 

By  cattle,  vetch  hay  is  much  relished.  Grown  thickly 
and  cut  when  the  first  pods  have  formed,  it  makes  a  most 
excellent  fodder  for  young  calves.  It  is  probably  more  val- 
uable for  older  cattle  when  more  mature.  When  fed  to 
beef  cattle  and  also  to  dairy  cattle,  the  most  suitable  vetch 
hay  is  obtained  when  the  grain  is  a  little  short  of  maturity. 
Such  hay  is  especially  valuable  for  producing  milk.  Vetch 
hay  made  from  vetches  and  oats  grown  together  is  also  al- 
most equally  good  for  producing  milk. 

For  sheep,  it  is  admirably  adapted.  The  growth  is  finer 
than  that  of  the  pea,  hence  there  is  even  less  waste  in  feed- 
ing vetch  hay  to  sheep  than  in  feeding  pea  hay.  Vetch  hay 
cut  at  any  stage  between  that  of  full  bloom  and  the  filling 
of  the  pods  makes  admirable  hay  for  sheep  being  carried 
through  the  winter  and  especially  for  ewes  nursing  lambs. 
Such  hay  will  virtually  suffice  for  nursing  ewes  without 
other  food,  and  when  the  hay  is  almost  mature  before  it  is 
cut,  sheep  may  be  fattened  by  feeding  vetch  hay  alone  when 
it  can  be  spared  for  such  a  use.  As  with  peas,  exposure  to 
rain  while  being  cured  speedily  reduces  the  feeding  value. 

For  swine,  vetch  hay  pure  and  simple  is  virtually  of  lit- 
tle value,  except  when  cut  not  later  than  the  stage  of  early 
bloom.  But  when  fed  in  the  mature  form,  swine  will,  of 
course,  find  food  in  the  grain  to  the  extent  even  of  fattening 
upon  it,  as  when  they  are  allowed  to  glean  amid  the  mature 
though  unharvested  crop.  But  this  makes  no  use  of  the 
vines  for  food,  which  would  be  a  waste  that  in  ordinary 
feeding  could  not  be  defended.  However,  should  the  har- 
vested crop  be  greatly  injured  by  rain,  it  would  be  justifi- 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  1 99 

able  to  feed  vetches  to  swine  in  the  loose  sheaves  or  bun- 
dles in  which  they  are  usually  harvested,  except  when  the 
straw  is  wanted  for  bedding. 

For  horses,  vetch  hay  stands  much  on  a  par  with  clo- 
ver hay  as  a  food.  It  is  richer  in  nutrients  than  clover  and 
horses  are  fond  of  it,  but  like  clover  it  is  not  easily  cured  so 
as  to  be  free  from  dust.  When  grown  in  admixture,  as 
with  wheat  or  oats,  the  combination  makes  excellent  fodder 
for  horses  when  cut  somewhat  short  of  maturity. 

Bean  hay. — Hay  is  seldom  or  never  made  from  the 
common  field  bean  (Faba  vulgaris),  but  it  is  sometimes 
made  from  the  soy  bean  (Glycine  hispida},  the  velvet  bean 
(Mucuna  utilis),  and  the  horse  bean,  a  variety  probably  of 
the  species  Taba  vulgaris.  It  is  more  frequently  made  from 
the  soy  bean  than  from  the  other  plants  of  the  bean  family, 
but  soy  beans  also  are  more  commonly  grown  to  provide 
grain  rather  than  hay.  Soy  bean  hay  which  yields  on  an 
average  about  two  tons  an  acre  is  much  relished  by  stock 
when  cut  and  cured  so  as  to  retain  the  bulk  of  the  leaves. 
Owing  to  the  intertwining  nature  of  the  vines,  the  harvest- 
ing of  velvet  beans  is  not  easy  nor  is  the  crop  easily  cured, 
hence  it  does  not  stand  as  high,  relatively,  in  the  popular  es- 
timate as  it  otherwise  would.  But  its  hay  is  said  to  be 
much  relished  by  stock  and  in  some  instances  the  cutting 
may  be  so  regulated  as  to  give  two  of  these  crops  a  year. 

Horse  beans  are  seldom  harvested  for  hay.  They  are 
usually  grown  primarily  for  the  grain  and  incidentally  for 
the  straw.  They  are  slow  in  curing  but  may  be  made  into 
hay  should  occasion  require  this.  As  curing  them  thus  us- 
ually calls  for  considerable  work,  it  is  oftentimes  considered 
preferable  when  the  facilities  are  present,  to  cure  them  in 
the  silo  along  with  other  feed  such  as  corn. 

By 'cattle,  hay  made  from  the  crops  named  is  much  rel- 
ished, but  it  is  not  commonly  fed  to  them  in  any  considerable 
quantity  nor  in  prolonged  feeding,  since  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances such  fodder  may  be  obtained  with  less  labor  from 
other  plants  that  may  be  grown  in  the  same  locality.  It  is 


200  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

more  commonly  fed  to  dairy  cows,  as  the  high  protein  con- 
tent in  each  is  conducive  to  free  milk  production.  It  is 
claimed  that  soy  bean  hay  should  be  made  before  the  plants 
approach  the  maturing  period  or  much  of  the  grain  will  es- 
cape mastication  and  will  not  be  properly  digested. 

In  sheep  feeding,  hay  from  these  plants  is  not  much 
used  for  the  reason  just  given  as  to  why  it  is  not  much  used 
in  feeding  cattle.  But  when  cut  early  and  well  cured,  sheep 
eagerly  consume  it,  especially  after  they  have  become  ac- 
customed to  it.  It  is  particularly  useful  in  feeding  ewes 
nursing  lambs  and  which  have  not  yet  been  turned  out  to 
pasture.  When  largely  made  up  of  coarse  stems  from 
which  many  of  the  leaves  have  been  lost,  the  value  of  the 
hay  for  feeding  sheep  is  proportionately  lessened. 

In  feeding  suine,  bean  hay  is  of  but  little  value,  owing 
to  the  small  quantities  of  it  the  animals  consume.  But,  of 
course,  hogs  may  glean  profitably  in  soy  bean  and  velvet 
bean  fields,  when  the  crops  are  not  to  be  otherwise  har- 
vested. Common  field  beans  and  horse  beans  are  too  val- 
uable for  such  feeding.  Swine  are  not  so  fond  of  beans  in 
the  raw  state  as  they  usually  are  of  peas,  corn  and  the 
small  cereal  grains. 

Plorses  and  mules  may  be  fed  bean  hay  when  available. 
To  young  horses  and  brood  mares  it  may  be  fed  with  much 
freedom,  when  the  proportion  of  grain  in  the  hay  is  not  too 
large.  The  horse  bean,  when  fed  as  hay  in  the  nearly  ma- 
tured form,  may  be  made  to  furnish  a  large  proportion  of 
the  fodder  and  grain  required.  The  additional  grain 
should  be  corn  when  available.  What  has  been  said  of  the 
horse  bean  will  probably  apply  also  to  the  soy  bean. 

Timothy  hay. — This  crop  now  grown  most  extensively 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  in  nearly  all 
of  the  arable  areas  of  Canada,  stands  higher  as  a  fodder  for 
horses  than  any  other  plant  grown.  In  states  farther  south, 
it  is  also  grown  more  or  less,  but  in  these  it  is  not  relied 
upon  to  anything  like  so  great  an  extent  in  providing  fod- 
der for  horses.  No  other  kind  of  hay  is  so  suitable  for 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  2OI 

shipping  and  none  brings  so  high  a  price  in  the  average 
market. 

For  cattle,  timothy  does  not  rank  high  when  fed  alone. 
It  is  but  little  ahead  of  corn  or  sorghum  in  its  protein  con- 
tent. Usually  the  market  value  for  timothy  unmixed  and 
of  good  quality,  makes  it  too  dear  for  such  feeding.  The 
yield  of  timothy  is  also  relatively  low  compared  with  the 
fodders  just  named.  Timothy  of  fine  growth,  cut  early  and 
well  cured,  may  be  fed  to  calves  with  suitable  adjuncts,  but 
when  coarse  and  woody,  the  results  from  such  feeding  will 
not  prove  satisfactory.  If  fed  as  the  exclusive  fodder  por- 
tion to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  the  concentrate  fed 
along  with  it  should  be  rich  in  such  protein  foods  as  oil 
meal,  gluten  meal,  pea  meal,  cottonseed  meal  and  wheat 
bran.  When  fed  to  cows  in  milk,  even  larger  proportions 
of  these  foods  should  be  fed.  When  grown  on  farms  for 
such  feeding,  it  is  usually  sown  in  conjunction  with  clover. 
The  two  grow  admirably  together  and  furnish  a  mixed  hay 
well  suited  to  the  needs  of  cattle.  The  larger  the  propor- 
tion of  the  clover  in  such  hay,  the  more  valuable  it  is  rela- 
tively for  cattle  and  sheep,  but  the  reverse  of  this  is  true 
though  with  some  limitations  with  reference  to  horses. (See 

P.  193). 

For  sheep,  timothy  when  fed  alone,  is  even  more  un- 
suitable than  for  cattle.  This  is  especially  true  of  timothy 
that  is  coarse  and  overripe,  as  sheep  will  not  readily  eat 
such  hay.  Should  they  be  compelled  to  eat  it  as  the  sole 
fodder  ration,  they  will  not  maintain  good  form,  unless  con- 
centrates rich  in  protein  are  fed  to  them.  It  is  quite  ad- 
missible, however,  to  feed  mixed  timothy  and  clover  to 
sheep  when  the  crop  has  been  cut  at  an  early  stage  in  the 
maturity  of  the  timothy. 

For  swine,  timothy  hay  is  quite  tmsuited.  The  swine 
do  not  care  to  eat  it  and  it  is  also  ill  suited  to  their  diges- 
tion. It  is  questionable  if  it  will  pay  to  feed  it  to  them, 
even  though  chaffed  and  steamed. 


202  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

For  horses,  timothy  is  par  excellence  the  fodder.  No 
fodder  grown  on  the  continent  will  at  all  compare  with  it 
in  popularity  for  this  purpose.  It  occupies  the  place  among 
horse  fodders  that  oats  does  among  grains.  Timothy  and 
oats  are  the  standard  and  favorite  foods  for  horses  wher- 
ever they  can  be  grown. 

The  high  estimate  thus  put  upon  timothy  arises :  First, 
from  its  freedom  from  dust;  second,  from  the  little  loss  re- 
sulting from  handling  it;  and  third,  from  the  fondness 
which  horses  show  for  it.  It  does  not,  like  clover  and  al- 
falfa, produce  too  much  of  laxness  in  the  bowels,  and  it 
seems  to  impart  and  sustain  both  nerve  and  staying  power 
akin  to  the  results  that  come  from  feeding  oats.  It  has, 
moreover,  peculiar  adaptation  for  being  fed  to  horses  that 
are  driven  much  and  fast  or  worked  hard.  But  mixed  tim- 
othy and  clover  has  higher  adaptation  for  being  fed  to  foals, 
young  horses,  brood  mares  and  horses  that  are  idle  because 
of  its  higher  protein  content. 

Hay  from  grasses  other  than  timothy. — Prominent 
among  the  grasses  other  than  timothy  that  are  grown  in  the 
United  States  for  feeding  as  hay,  are  Redtop  (Agrostis 
vulgaris),  Russian  brome  (Bromus  inermis),  Orchard 
grass  (Dactylus  glomerata),  Meadow  fescue  (Festuca  pra- 
tensis),  Tall  oat  grass  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum),  West- 
ern rye  grass  (Agropyrum  tenerum),  Kentucky  blue  grass 
(Poa  pratensis),  Canadian  blue  grass  (Poa  compressa] 
and  in  the  South  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon).  The 
wild  grasses  of  the  prairie  are  also  an  important  source  of 
hay  in  western  and  northwestern  areas.  Other  grasses,  as 
for  instance,  Perennial  rye  grass  (Lolium  perenne),  Italian 
rye  grass  (Lolium  Italicum),  Texas  blue  grass  (Poa  ari- 
chnifera),  Rough  stalked  meadow  grass  (Poa  trivialis), 
Fowl  meadow  grass  (Poa  serotria^,  Rescue  grass  (Bromus 
unioloides)  and  Velvet  grass  (Holcus  lanatus)  are  grown 
more  or  less  largely  for  fodder,  but  because  of  the  compara- 
tively limited  areas  to  which  their  growth  is  restricted,  they 
will  not  be  discussed  here  further  than  to  say  that  being 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  2O^ 

carbonaceous,  they  should  be  fed  in  conjunction  with 
legumes. 

Redtop,  probably  more  extensively  distributed  than  any 
other  grass,  ranks  high  as  a  fodder.  It  is  seldom  grown 
alone  to  provide  fodder  in  northern  areas,  save  in  land  that 
is  naturally  slough-like  in  character.  It  is  much  grown 
along  with  timothy  on  congenial  soils,  to  increase  the  total 
yield.  The  feeding  qualities  are  much  like  those  of  timothy, 
and  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  timothy,  it  may  be  fed  in 
much  the  same  way  (see  p.  200). 

Russian  brome  grass  is  popular  as  a  dry  fodder  in 
large  areas  of  the  northwestern  states  and  in  nearly  all  of 
the  cultivated  areas  of  northwestern  Canada.  The  yields 
are  generally  in  excess  of  those  obtained  from  timothy,  and 
the  feeding  value  is  by  many  considered  higher,  owing  to 
the  greater  leafiness  and  superior  palatability  of  Russian 
brome.  It  is  adapted  to  about  the  same  uses  as  timothy 
(see  p.  200),  but  is  not  so  readily  cured,  nor  is  it  so  good  a 
fodder  for  shipping,  nor  in  all  respects  for  feeding  horses. 

Orchard  grass  has  never  become  nearly  so  popular  as 
timothy  or  redtop  as  a  hay  crop.  This  is  owing  to  its  coarse 
growth,  to  the  greater  woodiness  of  the  stems,  to  the  short 
period  during  which  it  may  be  harvested  in  season,  to  the 
greater  degree  of  the  injury  it  takes  from  rain,  and  to  the 
less  relish  which  animals  have  for  it.  It  must  not  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  it  will  not  make  good  hay  if  cut  and 
cured  properly.  It  may  be  fed  in  substantially  the  same 
way  as  timothy. 

Meadow  fescue  is  not  grown  alone  to  provide  dry  fod- 
der over  large  areas,  as  it  takes  longer  to  form  a  thick  and 
strong  growth  than  timothy.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  on 
average  soils  it  produces  more  abundantly  than  the  standard 
hay  fodder  mentioned,  although  in  some  of  the  central 
western  states  it  has  produced  more  abundantly  than  tim- 
othy. Its  feeding  value  is  much  the  same. 

Tall  oat  grass,  more  extensively  grown  in  the  South 
and  in  the  central  and  far  western  states  than  elsewhere  on 


2O4  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

this  continent,  has  the  merit  of  growing  quickly  and  vigor- 
ously into  hay.  Its  palatability  is  not  so  high  relatively  as 
that  of  timothy,  owing  to  a  somewhat  bitter  principle  found 
in  the  hay,  and  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  pasture  and  to  the 
coarseness  of  stem  and  leaf.  Nor  is  it  so  easily  cured  as 
timothy,  while  it  takes  greater  injury  from  rain.  In  feed- 
ing value  it  is  scarcely  equal  to  timothy,  especially  for 
horses,  but  like  timothy  it  should  be  fed  in  conjunction  with 
leguminous  foods. 

Western  rye  grass,  frequently  called  slender  wheat 
grass,  has  special  adaptation  for  the  prairies  of  the  West 
and  the  Northwest,  and  more  particularly  for  areas  too  dry 
for  growing  other  grasses  at  their  best.  It  is  native  to 
much  of  the  prairie  region,  and  under  cultivation  will  pro- 
duce large  yields  of  hay.  The  hay  is  very  easily  cured,  but 
it  is  not  so  much  relished  as  timothy  or' Russian  brome,  ow- 
ing in  part  at  least  to  its  woody  character,  but  it  will  furnish 
hay  under  cultivation  on  soils  too  dry  for  the  growth  of 
other  cultivated  grasses.  Its  uses  are  almost  identical  with 
those  of  timothy  (see  p.  200). 

Kentucky  blue  grass  is  not  a  good  grass  to  furnish  fod- 
der. Because  of  the  fine  and  dwarfish  habit  of  growth,  the 
yields  are  relatively  small  and  unless  cut  with  much  prompt- 
ness at  the  proper  stage  of  growth,  it  becomes  so  dry  and 
woody  as  to  be  little  relished.  Its  habitat  will  ultimately 
embrace  nearly  all  the  tillable  areas  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  very  easily  cured  and  may  be  fed  in  about  the  same 
way  as  timothy  (see  p.  200).  It  is  seldom  cut  for  hay  ex- 
cept when  it  forms  a  part  of  another  hay  crop. 

Canadian  blue  grass,  like  the  Kentucky  variety,  does 
not  give  large  yields,  but  it  produces  more  valuable  hay,  es- 
pecially for  horses.  It  has  so  much  of  body  to  it,  as  it  were, 
that  it  weighs  heavily.  When  the  conditions  for  growth 
are  not  really  favorable,  this  grass  may  frequently  be  grown 
with  profit  for  hay.  Like  all  the  grasses,  when  cured  it  has 
highest  adaptation  for  feeding  horses,  especially  when  at 
work. 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  2O5 

Bermuda  grass  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  grass  grown 
in  the  South.  It  is,  strickly  speaking,  a  summer  grass,  and 
one  for  mild  latitudes,  as  it  turns  brown  with  the  first  frosts 
of  autumn.  It  will  not  live  in  a  soil  that  is  penetrated  deeply 
by  frost.  It  will  also  grow,  though  by  no  means  equally 
well,  on  nearly  all  the  soils  of  the  South.  Strickly  speaking, 
it  is  a  pasture  grass,  but  it  also  makes  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious hay,  although  the  yields  are  not  large  relatively.  The 
aim  should  be  to  feed  it  in  conjunction  with  such  fodder  as 
alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay,  or  with  such  a  concentrate  as  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Wild  prairie  hay  is  largely  fed  in  both  the  American 
and  Canadian  Northwest.  Of  course  it  is  a  gradually  dimin- 
ishing quantity,  but  for  many  years  it  will  still  continue  to 
be  an  important  source  of  hay  in  the  areas  named.  It  varies 
greatly  in  quality  with  the  grasses  which  compose  it,  the 
soils  on  which  it  grows,  the  stage  at  which  it  is  cut,  and  the 
character  of  the  curing.  It  usually  embraces  a  number  of 
grasses  and  other  plants,  some  of  which  partake  of  the 
character  of  the  weeds.  On  the  upland  the  general  charac- 
ter of  the  growth  is  fine,  but  in  the  sloughs  it  is  usually  rank 
and  dense.  Harvesting  prairie  grass  is  very  frequently  so 
long  deferred  that  the  value  of  the  hay  is  lessened  although 
it  will  bear  such  treatment  better  than  most  grasses.  It  is 
also  very  frequently  injured  by  over  exposure  in  the  swath. 
It  is  very  evident  that  such  hay  will  vary  so  much  in  charac- 
ter that  its  feeding  value  cannot  be  given  in  any  other  than 
a  general  way.  In  tests  made,  upland  prairie  hay  has  been 
found  to  possess  feeding  properties  about  equal  to  timothy 
and  to  be  adapted  to  the  same  kinds  of  feeding  (see  p.  200). 
The  presence  of  foreign  substances  will  of  course  reduce 
the  value  of  such  hay  in  proportion  as  they  are  present. 

Hay  from  the  small  grains. — Hay  is  sometimes  made 
from  the  various  kinds  of  small  grains  grown  singly, 
or  in  various  combinations.  When  grown  singly  the  hay 
takes  its  name  from  the  grain  which  furnishes  it.  There  is, 
therefore,  rye  hay,  speltz  hay,  wheat  hay,  barley  hay,  oat 


2O6  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

hay,  pea  hay  and  vetch  hay.  The  oat  is  more  commonly 
made  to  furnish  hay  than  any  of  the  small  grains  .  The  ne- 
cessity for  growing  hay  from  these  sources  is  based  on  the 
needs  of  the  localities  where  they  are  thus  grown,  and  on 
the  attendant  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  Hay  from 
these  crops  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  hay  from  the  grasses. 
The  time  of  cutting  varies  with  the  use  that  is  to  be  made 
of  it.  The  aim,  however,  in  cutting  it  seeks  to  retain  the 
green  color  in  the  hay  without  sacrificing  entirely  the  grain 
product.  In  other  words  it  seeks  to  cut  the  crop  as  soon 
as  the  plants  are  possessed  of  a  maximum  of  nutrition  and 
before  the  crop  has  matured. 

Rye  hay  is  probably  the  least  valuable  of  the  kinds  of 
hay  made  from  any  of  the  small  cereals.  At  a  very  early 
stage  of  growth  it  becomes  woody  in  character  and  so  un- 
profitable that  live  stock  do  not  eat  it  readily  unless  when 
chaffed  and  mixed  with  other  fodders.  The  matured  grain 
of  rye  is  usually  more  valuable  than  the  grain  and  fodder 
together  when  harvested  short  of  maturity.  Rye  hay  is  less 
relished  by  sheep  than  by  other  live  stock  unless  it  has  been 
cut  at  or  before  the  early  earing  stage. 

Spelts  hay  is  sometimes  made  in  semi-arid  regions 
where  hay  from  other  sources  is  not  easily  obtained.  That 
it  does  not  produce  high  yields  of  fodder  is  so  far  an  ob- 
jection to  its  use.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  it  to  be- 
come so  mature  that  it  will  get  over-woody. 

Wheat  hay  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  certain 
01  the  Pacific  states  and  in  some  of  the  semi-arid  country 
to  provide  hay  chiefly  for  horses  and  more  particularly  for 
horses  at  work.  On  the  bench  lands  of  these  states  it  may 
usually  be  harvested  and  cured  in  the  absence  of  rain. 
When  cut  a  little  short  of  maturity  it  makes  excellent  hay 
for  horses  at  work,  but  for  other  classes  of  animals  on  the 
farm  it  is  usually  too  costly  for  such  feeding.  In  other 
words,  other  plants  may  usually  be  grown  that  will  furnish 
hay  more  cheaply. 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDEfeS  2O/ 

Barley  nay  is  frequently  grown  in  the  western  moun- 
tain and  Pacific  states,  and  as  with  wheat,  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  food  for  horses.  For  such  a  use  it 
stands  high  in  favor,  especially  for  horses  that  are  being 
driven.  In  regions  where  alfalfa  grows,  such  hay  would  be 
too  costly  for  feeding  cattle,  sheep  or  swine.  If  allowed  to 
become  mature  before  it  is  cut,  the  beards  will  make 
trouble. 

Oat  hay  is  probably  grown  more  than  hay  from  all  the 
other  grains  combined.  In  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
where  oats  can  be  grown,  more  or  less  oat  hay  is  also  grown. 
This  hay  may  be  fed  with  profit  under  certain  conditions  to 
ail  classes  of  farm  animals  except  swine.  It  is  chiefly 
grown  to  provide  food  for  dairy  cows  and  the  aim  in  grow- 
ing it  thus  is  to  furnish  fodder  and  a  part  of  the  grain  in 
the  same  plant,  without  the  necessity  for  threshing  or  grind- 
ing the  grain.  Such  hay  usually  ranks  next  to  clover  hay  as 
fodder  for  dairy  cows.  The  crop  is  usually  cut  with  the 
binder  when  the  grain  is  in  or  nearing  the  dough  stage,  tied 
in  small  sheaves  and  cured  in  the  shock.  When  fed  to 
sheep  it  should  be  cut  not  far  beyond  the  heading  out  stage. 

Pea  and  vetch  hays  are  not  usually  grown  alone,  but 
rather  in  combination  with  some  other  cereal.  For  the  dis- 
cussion of  growing  peas  thus  see  p.  208.  For  the  discus- 
sion relating  to  vetches  see  p.  208. 

Hay  from  cereals  mixed. — Hay  is  sometimes  grown 
from  a  mixture  of  the  seed  of  certain  of  the  cereals.  Such 
fodders  are  usually  more  valuable  relatively,  at  least  for  cer- 
tain uses,  than  they  would  be  if  grown  singly.  This  arises 
first,  from  the  finer  growth  that  usually  characterizes  the 
hay  because  of  the  thicker  stand  of  the  plants ;  second,  from 
the  larger  yields  that  result  from  the  thick  stand;  third, 
from  the  variety  in  the  hay  which  whets  the  appetite,  and 
fourth,  from  the  better  balance  given  to  the  fodder  when 
legumes  are  grown  with  non-legumes. 

These  mixtures  may  be  varied  indefinitely;  the  most 
popular  by  far  are  mixtures  of  oats  and  peas,  oats  and 


2O8  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

vetches,  or  of  the  three  combined.  In  other  instances  wheat, 
oats,  barley  and  flax  are  grown  together.  When  legumes 
are  grown  with  non-legumes,  the  aim  usually  is  to  have  not 
more  of  the  latter  in  the  mixture  than  will  sustain  the  le- 
gumes, but  this  of  course  may  be  varied  at  the  will  of  the 
grower.  In  order  to  obtain  the  desired  proportions  of  each 
plant,  the  seed  must  be  sown  with  that  end  in  view,  and  it 
may  take  some  time  to  ascertain  how  much  of  each  will  fur- 
nish the  best  fodder. 

Peas  and  oats  grown  together  furnish  excellent  fodder 
when  the  crop  has  been  kept  from  lodging.  If  cut  a  little 
underripe  the  hay  is  excellent  for  all  kinds  of  growing 
stock.  But  when  fed  to  growing  animals  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  add  other  fodder  as  the  peas  and  oats  may  contain 
too  large  a  proportion  of  grain  for  the  needs  of  the  stock. 
For  dairy  cows,  such  food  is  excellent.  It  also  meets  in  fine 
form  the  needs  of  sheep.  When  breeding  ewes  are  fed  such 
fodder  usually  they  do  not  require  any  additional  grain. 
This  fodder  when  properly  grown  may  be  cut  with  the 
binder  and  fed  from  the  sheaf  or  it  may  be  cured  like  hay. 

Oats  and  vetches  are  grown  similarly  to  oats  and  peas. 
The  proportions  of  each  that  ought  to  be  sown  can  only 
be  determined  by  experiment,  but  the  vetch  is  the  more  val- 
uable fodder  of  the  two,  and  should,  therefore,  furnish  the 
bulk  of  the  fodder.  The  relatively  high  cost  of  the  seed  is 
the  most  serious  objection  in  the  way  of  growing  such  hay 
in  the  meantime.  It  furnishes  a  grand  fodder  for  milch 
cows  and  ranks  even  higher  as  a  fodder  for  sheep.  Such 
hay  can  be  obtained  from  the  common  vetch  and  also  from 
the  sand  or  hairy  vetch.  The  latter  cannot  be  harvested 
satisfactorily  for  hay,  unless  grown  with  some  grain  crop 
owing  to  the  intertwining  nature  of  the  vines. 

Oat,  pea  and  vetch  hay  is  much  relished  and  when 
properly  grown  is  of  fine  growth.  Usually  the  seed  of  the 
vetch  must  be  used  freely  in  the  mixture  or  the  vetches  will 
be  overshadowed  by  the  growth  of  the  other  plants.  Some 
variety  of  oats,  short  and  stiff  in  the  straw,  is  to  be  preferred 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  2OQ 

to  oats  tall  and  coarse.  It  is  important  that  the  crop  snail 
be  prevented  from  lodging,  otherwise  its  quality  will  be 
proportionately  lowered. 

In  wheat,  oat,  barley  and  flax  hay,  the  flax  is  sown  to 
furnish  what  is  the  equivalent  of  oil  meal  to  the  fodder.  The 
amount  to  sow  must  be  determined  by  the  conditions  of 
each  locality.  The  more  rank  the  growth  of  the  other 
plants  in  the  mixture,  the  more  the  amount  of  the  flax  re- 
quired and  -vice  versa.  Usually  from  2  to  4  quarts  an  acre 
will  suffice.  Hay  properly  made  from  these  grains,  much 
relished  by  cattle  and  useful  in  feeding  sheep,  is  of  highest 
value  relatively  for  horses. 

Millet  hay. — Millet  in  all  its  varieties  is  more  com- 
monly grown  as  a  catch  crop  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada than  as  the  principal  crop  of  the  season.  It  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  being  grown  thus,  owing  to  the  short 
period  it  occupies  the  land.  It  will  usually  mature  a  hay 
crop  in  from  60  to  75  days  from  the  date  of  sowing.  It 
grows  best  during  the  warm  weather  of  summer,  and  it 
may  be  successfully  grown  on  any  land  that  will  grow  good 
corn.  Its  value  for  hay  depends  much  on  the  season  of 
cutting  and  also  on  the  method  adopted  in  curing  the  crop. 
If  cut  too  early,  the  hay  is  lacking  in  body  and  yield,  and 
when  fed  freely  tends  more  or  less  to  induce  scouring.  If 
cut  too  late,  it  becomes  so  woody  that  more  or  less  of  the 
coarser  parts  will  be  left  uneaten  by  the  stock  to  which  it  is 
fed.  Much  of  the  seed  will  also  shatter,  and  that  which  does 
not  is  so  hard  that  it  may  cause  more  or  less  irritation  in  the 
digestive  organs.  To  make  hay  suitable  for  feeding  to  live 
stock  generally,  it  should  be  cut  when  a  golden  tint  begins 
to  show  in  the  heads  on  looking  over  the  field.  The  curing 
should  be  about  the  same  as  would  be  suitable  for  curing 
first  class  quality  of  clover  hay.  When  properly  cured  the 
hay  should  be  green  rather  than  brown.  No  class  of  hay 
varies  more  in  value  because  of  variations  in  the  modes  of 
making  it.  When  made  as  outlined,  it  is  an  excellent  fod- 
der adjunct  for  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  But,  usually,  it 


2IO  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

should  form  not  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  fodder  fed, 
for  the  reason  first,  that  its  protein  content  is  not  high ; 
and  second,  that  it  has  not  proved  entirely  satisfactory  or 
safe  when  fed  continuously  as  the  sole  fodder  ration. 

Fed  to  cattle,  the  aim  should  be  to  alternate  the  feeding 
with  clover  or  some  other  legume.  Though  not  equal  to 
clover  or  alfalfa  as  a  food  for  calves,  when  finely  grown 
and  well  cured,  it  may,  with  much  propriety  form  at  least 
one  half  the  fodder  ration.  It  may  also  be  fed  thus  to  beef 
cattle,  the  other  fodder  in  all  such  instances  being  legumi- 
nous. Cut  and  cured  in  good  form,  it  is  superior  to  timothy 
as  a  milk  producer,  but  when  overripe  it  is  of  little  value  for 
such  feeding  and  may  do  harm. 

Fed  to  sheep,  it  is  highly  important  that  it  shall  be  of 
fine  growth.  When  thus  grown  and  well  cured,  sheep  eat  it 
with  avidity,  but  when  coarse,  overripe  or  overcured,  it  is 
less  valuable  than  straw  of  some  of  the  small  cereals.  Fed 
to  lambs  at  the  Michigan  experiment  station,  it  proved 
less  valuable  than  clover  hay  and  oat  straw  fed  together,  the 
grain  fed  being  corn. 

For  swine,  it  has  low  feeding  value.  Unless  when  it 
contains  seed,  it  has  practically  no  feeding  value  as  the  an- 
imals will  not  eat  enough  of  it  to  make  it  in  any  considerable 
degree  even  a  food  of  support.  But  in  some  instances, 
they  have  been  carried  through  the  winter  by  allowing  them 
to  eat  the  heads  of  matured  millet,  when  other  food  was 
not  obtainable. 

For  horses,  millet,  if  well  cured,  may  usually  be  made 
to  form  half  the  fodder  ration,  but  if  fed  continuously  for 
any  considerable  period,  serious  complications  may  follow. 
In 'the  prairie  sections  of  the  Northwest  where  considerable 
millet  is  grown  for  hay,  it  is  claimed  that  horses  have  died 
from  the  exclusive  feeding  ot  millet  hay.  Experiments  con- 
ducted at  the  North  Dakota  experiment  station  apparently 
justify  the  following  conclusions :  ( i )  That  feeding  millet 
increases  unduly  the  action  of  the  kidneys;  (2)  that  it 
causes  a  swelling  of  the  joints  that  leads  to  lameness,  which 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  211 

may,  however,  disappear  when  the  feeding  of  millet  is  dis- 
continued; and  (3)  that  it  injures  the  texture  of  the  bone 
by  rendering  it  softer  and  less  tenacious. 

Corn  fodder. — This  is  an  elastic  term  which  may  be 
applied  to  corn  cut  at  any  stage  of  growth  and  fed  in  the 
green  or  cured  form,  with  or  without  the  removal  of  the 
ears.  It  thus  applies  to  the  crop  grown  so  thickly  or  cut  so 
early  that  it  has  no  ears,  to  the  mature  crop  fed  along  with 
the  ears  which  it  has  borne  and  also  to  the  crop  from  which 
the  ears  have  been  removed,  but  the  stalks  from  which  the 
ears  have  been  taken  are  usually  spoken  of  as  stover.  Shock 
corn  means  the  cured  product  as  fed  from  the  shock  or 
stack  and  without  husking.  Snapped  corn  is  a  term  applied 
to  ears  which  are  pulled  from  the  standing  stalks  and  fed 
without  being  husked. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  corn  fodder  for  feeding,  the 
following  considerations  should  be  taken  into  account ;  viz., 
(i)  The  proportion  of  ear  to  stalk;  (2)  the  object  sought 
from  feeding  the  corn ;  ( 3 )  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which 
the  crop  is  harvested  and  (4)  the  time  that  has  elapsed 
since  harvesting  the  corn.  Of  well  matured  corn  grown 
for  the  ears,  it  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  more 
than  half  the  entire  weight  of  the  crop  and  considerably 
more  than  half  of  the  nutrients  b  in  the  ear.  Consequently 
when  cattle  and  sheep  are  being  fattened,  the  greater  the 
proportion  of  ears  to  the  fodder  fed  the  more  suitable  is 
it  for  such  fattening.  But,  as  usually  fed,  the  proportion 
of  the  stalks  rejected  will  be  greater  than  from  corn  grown 
rather  to  produce  fodder  than  ears,  because  of  the  coarse 
and  harsh  character  of  the  former. 

When  corn  is  fed  simply  for  maintenance,  to  promote 
growth  without  fattening,  or  for  milk  production,  the  con- 
sumption of  the  entire  product  will  be  greater  when  the 
fodder  has  been  grown  so  thickly  as  to  reduce  the  size  of 
ear  and  stalk.  When  thus  grown,  the  total  yield  to  the  acre 
of  nutrients  will  also  be  greater  than  if  grown  to  produce 
the  largest  amount  of  ears.  Consequently  the  food  value  of 


212  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

an  acre  of  corn  of  the  former  class,  should  be  greater  for 
such  feeding  than  of  the  latter  class.  There  is  a  limit,  how- 
ever, to  the  extent  to  which  corn  should  be  crowded  in 
growth  in  order  to  increase  fineness  and  leafiness  with  a 
view  to  increase  palatability  in  the  fodder.  Ordinarily  that 
limit  is  the  point  at  which  the  yield  of  total  digestible  nu- 
trients per  acre  would  be  decreased,  if  thick  growth  were 
carried  further.  Where  this  point  is,  cannot  be  definitely 
stated,  since  it  will  vary  with  variations  in  varieties  of  corn, 
soils  and  temperatures.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  grow 
corn  fodder  so  fine  and  leafy  as  to  insure  its  entire  con- 
sumption when  fed. 

The  stage  at  which  corn  should  be  cut  for  feeding  when 
cured  is  greatly  important.  The  increase  in  weight  from 
the  time  the  corn  is  fully  silked  until  mature  is  very  great, 
and  the  increase  in  nutrients  is  much  greater.  Corn  should 
never  be  cut  to  be  made  into  cured  fodder  or  for  the  silo, 
until  the  grain  has  reached  the  glazing  stage,  except  when 
such  cutting  is  necessary  to  protect  the  crop  from  impend- 
ing frosts.  It  is  even  better  when  the  crop  passes  the  glaz- 
ing stage.  Nevertheless,  corn  that  has  not  passed  the  milk 
stage  of  the  grain  when  it  must  needs  be  cut  for  the  reason 
given,  is  by  no  means  to  be  despised  for  fodder,  notwith- 
standing that  pound  for  pound  well  matured  corn  fodder 
has  a  higher  feeding  value. 

The  maximum  of  nutrition  is  in  the  corn  crop  when  it 
has  matured.  When  shocked  in  the  field  in  well  put  up 
shocks,  the  loss  from  deterioration  in  feeding  value  is  not 
great  for  a  time.  Soon,  however,  there  is  loss  though  the 
fodder  should  not  be  injured  by  rain,  and  this  loss  increases 
in  an  acclerated  ratio  and  with  increase  in  duration  subse- 
quently to  the  time  of  harvesting.  The  losses  in  dry  mat- 
ter and  in  such  substances  as  protein,  sugar  and  starch  are 
heavy,  especially  after  the  winter  months,  nor  will  stacking 
or  storing  under  cover  prevent  such  losses.  They  are 
thought  to  result  from  chemical  changes  brought  about  by 
fermentations.  Add  to  such  loss  the  incidental  losses  from 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  21 3 

fodder  exposed  and  from  decrease  in  palatability, .  and  the 
feeding  value  of  the  crop  in  time  becomes  greatly  lessened, 
hence  the  advisability  of  feeding  the  fodder  when  practi- 
cable in  the  autumn  and  early  winter,  reserving  the  fodder 
for  later  feeding. 

For  feeding  calves,  corn  fodder  is  suitable  when  of  fine 
growth,  but  not  so  suitable  as  clover  hay  or  alfalfa.  When 
not  too  coarse,  it  furnishes  excellent  food  for  young  cattle 
of  any  age,  but  it  is  too  low  in  protein  to  produce  results 
entirely  satisfactory  when  fed  alone.  Stover  is  less  suitable 
for  such  feeding,  being  lower  in  nutrients,  but  may  be  so 
used  when  shredded. 

For  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  corn  fodder  is  in- 
creasingly suitable  as  the  grain  which  it  contains  increases. 
Feeding  corn  from  the  shock  is  regarded  as  more  econom- 
ical than  feeding  from  the  crib,  as  the  labor  of  husking  is 
saved,  more  or  less  of  the  fodder  is  consumed,  and  the  ten- 
dency to  scouring  often  resulting  from  the  heavy  feeding  of 
ear  corn  is  lessened  if  not  entirely  prevented.  The  benefits 
resulting  from  feeding  snapped  corn  are  somewhat  similar 
though  less  in  degree,  as  when  feeding  it  the  consumption 
of  coarse  material  is  not  so  great.  Fodder  corn  is  fed  by 
strewing  it  over  grass  pastures  daily,  or  by  feeding  in 
slatted  racks  in  yards  or  sheds.  The  distance  between  the 
slats  should  be  enough  to  permit  the  cattle  to  insert  their 
heads  when  feeding.  The  aim  should  be  when  feeding  such 
fodder  to  have  two  pastures  or  two  feeding  lots,  and  to  al- 
low other  cattle  to  glean  after  those  that  are  being  fattened. 
When  fodder  with  but  few  ears  or  stover  is  being  fed  to 
such  cattle,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  it  in  the  shredded 
form,  and  to  make  not  less  than  half  the  ration  clover  hay. 

For  dairy  cows  in  milk,  corn  fodder  furnishes  excellent 
roughage  when  not  too  coarse  on  the  stalk.  With  much  ad- 
vantage it  may  form  50  per  cent  or  even  more  of  the  entire 
roughage  fed,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  other  fodder 
used.  When  possessed  of  a  fair  amount  of  nubbins,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  add  any  more  shelled  corn.  Even  mature 


214  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

corn,  grown,  so  thickly  as  to  furnish  virtually  no  nubbins 
has  been  found  excellent  for  milk  production,  and  also  one 
of  the  most  economical  of  foods,  owing  to  the  ease  with 
which  it  may  usually  be  grown  and  to  the  relatively  large 
yields  obtained.  Good  corn  fodder  is  fully  as  valuable  ton 
for  ton,  if  not  more  so,  than  good  timothy.  In  trials  at  the 
Wisconsin  station,  one  ton  of  corn  stover  fed  to  dairy  cows 
was  found  to  be  equal  in  feeding  value  to  three  tons  of 
mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay.  Fully  one-third  of  the  sto- 
ver was  left  unconsumed.  Cows  in  milk  may  be  fed  about 
12  pounds  of  corn  fodder  per  day,  and  mature  cattle  that 
are  being  wintered  a  much  larger  amount. 

For  sheep,  the  value  of  corn  fodder  depends  largely  on 
the  character  of  the  growth.  For  ordinary  feeding  the  fod- 
der should  be  of  fine  growth,  but  some  feeders  prefer  corn 
with  full  sized  ears  when  sheep  are  being  fattened.  In  such 
instances,  a  large  proportion  of  the  fodder  is  left  uncon- 
sumed. Corn  stover  is  less  valuable  relatively  for  feeding 
sheep  than  for  feeding  horses  and  cattle,  and  largely  because 
of  its  coarse  character.  In  the  shredded  form  it  has  not  al- 
ways proved  entirely  satisfactory  as  a  food  for  sheep,  as 
they  do  not  consume  it  with  the  same  relish  as  the  larger 
animals. 

For  swine,  particularly  in  some  of  the  sweet  varieties, 
corn  fodder  apart  from  the  grain  and  in  the  cured  form,  is 
comparatively  valueless.  The  stalks  of  the  sweet  sorts  may 
be  made  to  furnish  some  food,  but  not  nearly  so  much  as 
sorghum  (see  p.  216).  Green  corn  fodder  will  of  course 
be  partially  consumed  by  swine.  They  will  also  find  succu- 
lence in  corn  ensilage,  but  no  large  amount  of  food  apart 
from  the  grain. 

For  horses,  fodder  corn  has  a  high  feeding  value. 
When  it  is  grown  so  thickly  that  the  ears  are  half  the  size 
or  less,  it  makes  excellent  fodder  for  young  horses  in  the 
growing  stage,  idle  horses  and  brood  mares.  It  may  even 
form  half  the  fodder  ration  for  horses  that  are  worked  mod- 
erately. Even  the  stover,  quite  suitable  for  growing  colts 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  21 5 

and  idle  horses,  may  sometimes  form  a  part  of  the  ration 
of  working  horses.  Pound  for  pound,  good  stover  has  been 
found  to  have  a  feeding  value  about  equal  to  timothy. 
Shredding  stover  will  usually  insure  a  larger  consumption 
of  the  fodder  by  cattle  and  horses,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
running  it  through  a  cutting  box.  Feeding  tests  have 
shown  that  an  average  acre  of  corn  stover  well  preserved  is 
fully  equal  in  feeding  value  to  an  average  acre  of  timothy 
hay. 

Sorghum  fodder. — Sorghum  has  proved  valuable  as  a 
fodder  in  regions  too  dry  for  the  successful  growth  of  corn. 
But  where  corn  may  be  profitably  grown,  it  is  not  probable 
that  it  will  supplant  the  former  as  a  fodder  plant  since  it  is 
more  delicate  than  corn  when  young  and  it  also  involves 
more  labor  to  keep  it  clean  in  the  early  stages  of  growth. 
In  certain  areas  of  the  dry  West,  it  is  much  used  as  a  fod- 
der plant,  but  in  states  further  east  it  is  not  prized  so  highly. 
The  feeding  value  of  sorghum,  judged  from  the  standpoint 
of  nutrients,  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  corn  with  the  dif- 
ference that  sorghum  has  more  sugar  and  less  starch.  Con- 
trasted with  corn  fodder,  sorghum  will  in  many  instances, 
produce  a  larger  tonnage  per  acre,  is  not  so  easily  harmed 
b-  exposure  when  harvested,  and  is  more  palatable  because 
of  the  high  sugar  content  that  it  contains.  But  it  heats  in 
the  stack  much  more  readily  than  corn,  and  after  the  stalks 
have  frozen  and  thawed  out  again,  the  juices  still  remaining 
in  them  become  more  or  less  acid  to  its  detriment  as  a  fod- 
der. Its  highest  feeding  value  occurs  in  the  period  between 
the  maturing  of  the  crop  and  the  advent  of  hard  freezing 
weather.  It  may  be  also  made  into  good  ensilage  if  allowed 
to  become  practically  mature  before  putting  it  into  the  silo. 

By  cattle,  young  and  old,  sorghum,  especially  when  of 
fine  growth,  is  much  relished,  when  fed  from  early  maturity 
until  the  ground  freezes  solid.  To  obtain  fine  growth,  it 
must  be  grown  thickly  in  rows  not  distant,  or  on  the  plan 
followed  in  growing  grain.  It  is  usually  fed  to  cattle  by 
drawing  it  from  the  shocks  or  cocks  in  the  field  where  it 


2l6  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

grew  and  strewing  it  on  a  grass  pasture.  But  it  may  also  be 
fed  in  mangers  or  feed  boxes  in  the  stables  or  yards.  The 
aim  should  be  to  feed  it  in  conjunction  with  leguminous 
hay,  because  of  its  highly  carbonaceous  character.  Sor- 
ghum bagasse,  the  substance  which  remains  after  the  juices 
have  been  removed  for  the  production  of  syrup,  has  consid- 
erable value  as  a  fodder  for  cattle,  should  facilities  for  feed- 
ing it  be  present. 

For  sheep,  sorghum  fodder  of  fine  quality,  frequently 
spoken  of  as  sorghum  hay,  is  quite  as  valuable  as  in  feeding 
cattle,  and  it  may  be  fed  to  them  also  on  the  pastures  or  by 
strewing  it  in  clean  paddocks.  But  there  would  be  much 
waste  in  feeding  coarsely  grown  sorghum  to  sheep.  When 
the  stalks  are  not  too  coarse,  both  sheep  and  cattle  will  con- 
sume sorghum  with  but  little  waste.  The  waste  is  usually 
less  than  in  the  case  of  corn  fodder.  As  with  cattle,  the  aim 
should  be  to  feed  hay  of  some  legume  once  a  day  when  feed- 
ing sorghum  hay. 

In  feeding  swine,  sorghum  fodder  has  been  made  to 
render  good  service.  For  such  a  use,  coarse  stalks  are  bet- 
ter than  fine.  They  usually  contain  more  juice  relatively 
and  more  sugar.  When  feeding  upon  them,  swine  simply 
extract  the  juices,  leaving  the  stalks  a  mass  of  shreds. 
When  stalks  are  fed  to  sheep  or  cattle  so  coarse  in  character 
that  much  of  the  coarser  portions  are  left  uneaten,  if  swine 
can  be  given  access  to  the  feed  yards  at  suitable  seasons, 
they  turn  to  good  account  the  food  thus  rejected.  Some  con- 
centrate rich  in  protein,  as  shorts  or  bran,  should  accompany 
such  feeding. 

For  feeding  horses,  in  some  areas  as  in  the  semi-arid 
region,  sorghum  is  much  used  as  hay.  If  in  such  areas 
sorghum  hay  may  be  made  to  alternate  with  alfalfa,  the 
combination  is  a  good  one.  Where  this  cannot  be  done, 
some -such  concentrate  as  wheat  bran  fed  along  with  the 
grain  would  improve  the  ration.  Horses  are  quite  as  fond 
of  sorghum  as  other  classes  of  live  stock  and  because  of  this, 
it  may  be  turned  to  good  account  in  feeding  them. 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  217 

Non-saccharine  sorghum  fodders. — The  chief  of  the 
non-saccharine  sorghums  grown  for  fodder  in  the  United 
States  are:  Kafir  corn,  Jerusalem  corn,  durra  and  Milo 
maize.  Of  these,  Kafir  corn  in  one  or  the  other  of  its  vari- 
eties is  by  far  the  most  extensively  grown.  Broom  corn, 
much  akin  to  these  plants,  may  also  be  grown  for  fodder, 
and  also  pearl  millet,  although  it  is  not  strictly  speaking  a 
non-saccharine  sorghum.  Teosinte  also  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  them  in  its  growth,  but  it  also  is  not  really  a  non- 
saccharine  sorghum.  The  growth  of  these  plants,  unless  it 
be  broom  corn,  is  confined  chiefly  to  areas  that  are  con- 
sidered too  dry  for  the  safe  and  abundant  production  of 
corn  and  sweet  sorghum.  All  these  plants  are  less  highly 
relished  than  sweet  sorghum,  and  are  so  far  less  valuable 
for  feeding. 

For  cattle,  Kafir  corn  is  extensively  used  as  a  fodder  in 
areas  where  it  is  much  grown.  Its  value  for  such  feeding 
is  much  influenced  by  the  way  in  which  it  has  been  grown 
and  in  which  it  is  fed.  When  grown  thickly  and  fed  from 
the  sheaf  or  cock,  it  contains  more  or  less  seed,  which,  of 
course,  adds  to  its  palatability  and  feeding  value.  When 
the  fodder  only  is  fed  after  the  heads  have  been  removed 
from  a  crop  grown  primarily  for  the  grain,  not  a  little  of 
the  coarser  portion  will  be  rejected.  The  palatability  of 
such  fodder  will  be  so  far  improved  by  shredding,  that  its 
consumption  will  be  much  increased,  thus  reducing  the 
waste,  and  because  of  the  dry  conditions  amid  which  it 
grows,  Kafir  corn  does  not  usually  spoil  readily  in  the 
shredded  form.  Because  of  the  relatively  small  amount  of 
protein  which  this  fodder  contains,  it  is  important  when 
practicable  that  it  shall  be  fed  in  conjunction  with  alfalfa, 
as  the  latter  can  usually  be  grown  on  areas  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  Kafir  corn. 

To  sheep,  when  fed  as  fodder  after  the  grain  has  been 
removed,  much  of  it  will  be  rejected  unless  when  shred- 
ded, because  of  the  stocky  character  of  the  growth.  When 
grown  like  grain  it  makes  more  suitable  fodder  for  sheep. 


2l8"  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

When  fed  to  cattle,  it  ought  to  be  fed  in  conjunction  or 
alternating  with  leguminous  fodder,  as  for  instance,  alfalfa 
or  cowpea  hay. 

In  feeding  swine,  Kafir  corn  fodder  is  of  but  little  use. 
In  this  respect  it  would  be  about  on  a  par  with  corn  stalks 
(see  p.  214).  But  when  the  crop  contains  more  or  less 
seed,  swine  may  consume  some  of  the  stalk,  especially  if 
fed  while  still  possessed  of  succulence  in  considerable  de- 
gree. 

For  horses,  Kafir  corn  fodder  in  certain  areas  serves  a 
useful  purpose.  As  when  feeding  cattle,  it  is  more  valu- 
able when  the  stalks  are  not  coarse.  With  horses  as  with 
cattle  and  sheep,  it  may  form  fully  half  the  fodder  fed 
when  fed  in  conjunction  with  leguminous  fodders. 

What  has  been  said  about  Kafir  corn  will  apply  in  the 
main  to  Jerusalem  corn  and  durra.  These  are  quite  stocky 
in  growth,  even  more  so  than  Kafir  corn.  As  they  are 
grown  chiefly  for  the  grain,  fodder  from  them  is  a  very 
secondary  consideration.  Milo  maize,  except  in  the  dwarf 
varieties,  is  of  much  taller  growth  and  has  more  abundant 
leaves  around  the  portion  of  the  stalk  from  which  the  seed 
head  emerges.  In  the  experiments  conducted  by  the  au- 
thor, it  was  found  that  Milo  maize  was  eaten  by  cattle  even 
with  as  much  avidity  as  sweet  sorghum.  When  fed  as  fod- 
der, these  plants  are  more  commonly  grown  thickly  and  are 
fed  from  the  cock. 

Broom  corn,  which  grows  up  very  quickly,  may  be 
used  for  fodder,  but  when  thus  fed  should  be  grown  for  the 
purpose.  When  grown  for  the  brush  to  be  used  in  making 
brooms,  the  stalks  are  usually  ploughed  under  where  they 
grew.  Other  plants  of  this  class  are  considered  more  valu- 
able than  broom  corn  in  furnishing  fodder,  hence  it  is 
scarcely  ever  grown  for  such  a  use. 

Pearl  millet  may  be  made  to  produce  enormous  crops 
of  fodder  in  the  milder  portions  of  the  continent.  In  ex- 
periments conducted  by  the  author,  however,  the  live  stock 
did  not  take  kindly  to  the  fodder.  They  did  not  relish  it 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS 

nearly  so  well  as  corn,  sorghum,  Kafir  corn  or  Milo  maize. 
Its  growth  for  fodder,  therefore,  where  any  of  these  plants 
can  be  grown  in  good  form  is  not  to  be  commended. 

Teosinte  produces  an  enormous  amount  of  long,  slen- 
der leaves.  A  large  tonnage  of  fodder  may  be  obtained  per 
acre  from  one  or  more  cuttings  in  the  season,  but,  owing 
to  the  character  of  the  growth,  it  is  not  easily  handled  nor 
readily  cured,  nor  does  it  seem  to  be  more  highly  relished 
than  pearl  millet.  However  useful,  therefore,  it  may  prove 
for  regions  far  south,  its  growth  is  not  to  be  recommended 
for  fodder  in  the  northern  or  central  states. 

Straw  as  fodder. — Straw  from  the  small  cereal  grains, 
so  generally  used  for  bedding,  is  also  frequently  used  for 
fodder.  When  used  as  fodder,  it  should  usually  be  as  a 
part  of  the  fodder  ration  only,  owing  to  the  large  bulk 
which  it  possesses  in  proportion  to  the  nutrition  and  also 
to  the  large  amount  of  the  crude  fibre  which  it  contains. 
Although  the  feeding  value  of  nearly  all  kinds  of  straw  is 
low  relatively,  it  may  frequently  be  fed  with  profit  to  ma- 
ture or  store  animals  that  are  being  simply  carried 
through  the  winter,  or  along  with  concentrates  to  cheapen 
the  ration,  when  hay  is  dear.  The  necessity  for  and  the  ad- 
vantage from  feeding  straw,  is  largely  dependent  on  the  rel- 
ative value  of  other  fodders.  Straw  has  considerable  value 
for  feeding  on  the  farms  of  New  England  and  on  those  of 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Canada,  while  in  wheat  growing 
areas  of  the  American  and  Canadian  Northwest,  it  is  usu- 
ally burned  to  get  rid  of  it.  Rye,  wheat,  barley,  speltz, 
oats,  peas,  beans  and  flax  are  the  principal  sources  from 
which  straw  is  obtained  in  America. 

The  feeding  value  of  straw  is  much  influenced  by 
what  may  be  termed  its  physical  condition,  by  the  way  in 
which  it  is  cured  and  by  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  in- 
jured by  such  diseases  as  rust.  The  physical  condition  of 
straw  has  reference  among  other  things  to  the  stage  of  ma- 
turity at  which  it  was  cut,  the  fineness  of  stem  and  abun- 
dance of  leaves,  and  the  extent  to  which  beards  are  present 


22O  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

or  absent.  Straw  cut  at  early  maturity  is  much  better  rel- 
ished than  when  cut  late  and  has  less  crude  fibre.  The  finer 
the  stems  and  the  more  abundant  the  leaves,  the  more  highly 
is  straw  relished.  Beards  in  it  are  more  or  less  objec- 
tionable as  they  sometimes  influence  mastication  adversely, 
especially  when  the  crop  is  fully  matured,  as  harshness,  so 
to  speak,  in  the  beards,  is  enhanced  by  increasing  maturity. 
The  methods  of  curing  straw  affect  it  similarly  to  the  way 
in  which  methods  affect  the  curing  of  hay.  When  straw  is 
overcured  and  bleached  by  exposure,  live  stock  do  not  care 
to  eat  it  and  heavy  rains  wash  out  of  it  soluble  nutrients. 
The  feeding  value  of  pea  and  bean  straw  may  be  almost 
destroyed  by  such  exposure,  and  to  a  less  degree  that  of 
oat  straw.  Such  parasitical  diseases  as  rust  may  greatly 
lessen  the  value  of  straw.  Smut  acts  similarly  and  also 
mildew,  which  frequently  attacks  some  kinds  of  leguminous 
plants.  It  may  not  be  safe  to  say  that  straw  thus  affected 
will  produce  positive  troubles  in  digestion,  but  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  such  visitations  affect  its  palatability  adverselv  in 
proportion  as  they  are  present. 

The  composition  of  straw,  as  may  be  expected,  differs 
much  with  the  class,  the  variety,  the  soil  in  which  it  is 
grown,  the  nature  of  the  stand,  whether  grown  alone  or  in 
combination,  and  whether  leguminous  or  otherwise.  Rye 
straw  stands  lowest  in  feeding  value  because  of  its  unpala- 
table and  woody  character,  unless  in  the  case  of  speltz. 
Next  in  feeding  value  is  wheat  straw,  based  on  palatability 
and  nutrients.  Then  follow  oat  straw,  flax  straw,  pea 
straw  and  bean  straw  in  the  order  named.  Varieties  of  the 
same  kind  of  grain,  naturally  of  fine  growth  and  leafy,  fur- 
nish straw  more  valuable  than  those  opposite.  Soils  well 
supplied  with  nitrogen  furnish  straw  more  rich  in  protein 
than  those  ill  supplied  with  the  same.  A  thick  fine  stand  of 
grain  furnishes  more  palatable  fodder  than  a  stand  thin  and 
coarse.  Straw  from  grains  grown  together  furnishes  a  vari- 
ety, and  hence  larger  quantities  will  be  eaten  of  some  of 
them  at  least,  than  if  grown  alone.  The  straw  of  legumes, 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  221 

as  peas  for  instance,  differs  from  the  straw  of  other  cereals 
much  as  clover  hay  differs  from  that  made  from  the 
grasses,  that  is,  it  is  richer  in  protein  and  is  more  palatable. 

For  stock — Straw  is  by  no  means  equally  well  adapted 
to  the  feeding  of  the  various  classes  of  farm  animals.  It  is 
better  adapted  relatively  to  the  feeding  of  ruminants  than 
to  feeding  horses  or  mules,  owing  to  the  relatively  larger 
stomach  of  the  former  and  to  the  greater  length  and  com- 
plexity of  their  digestive  canal,  which  gives  them  more  time 
and  greater  power  to  digest  bulky  products  of  low  relative 
nutrition.  Notwithstanding,  straw  may  furnish  a  consid- 
erable proportion  of  the  fodder  ration  of  work  horses  when 
occasion  calls  for  it,  providing  the  amount  of  the  concen- 
trates is  increased  so  as  to  furnish  the  requisite  nutrition. 
Horses  that  are  idle  may  be  entirely,  or  almost  entirely, 
wintered  on  good  straw  of  certain  of  the  cereals.  Cattle 
that  are  being  fattened  and  cows  in  milk  may  also  utilize 
considerable  quantities,  providing  concentrates  are  used  to 
maintain  equilibrium  in  nutrients.  The  free  and  judicious 
use  of  straw  may  frequently  effect  a  considerable  saving  in 
the  wintering  of  young  cattle  beyond  calfhood  without  ap- 
parently checking  growth,  and,  as  with  idle  horses,  straw 
alone,  or  almost  alone,  may  be  made  to  sustain  cattle  at  rest, 
for  considerable  periods.  Sheep  utilize  straw  to  better  ad- 
vantage even  than  cattle.  They  can  more  readily  pick  out 
the  finer  portions.  Straw  fodder  is  quite  unsuited  to  the 
needs  of  swine. 

Rye  straw  is  so  unpalatable  and  woody,  that  it  ranks 
low  in  feeding  value.  In  nutrients  it  is  fully  equal  to 
wheat  straw,  but  is  not  equal  to  it  in  palatability.  The 
economy  of  forcing  animals  to  eat  rye  straw  unless  in  in- 
stances when  fodder  is  scarce  and  dear  is  at  least  open  to 
question 

Spelts  straw  is  somewhat  more  valuable  than  rye  straw 
for  feeding,  but  the  hard,  stiff  character  of  the  straw  and 
beards  present  discounts  its  feeding  value  not  a  little. 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

Wheat  straw  when  bright  and  good  may,  under  certain 
conditions,  form  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the  diet 
of  cattle,  sheep  and  horses  in  winter,  but  cattle  and  sheep 
that  are  being  fattened,  cows  in  milk  and  working  horses 
should  not  be  required  to  consume  it  in  large  quantities, 
owing  to  its  low  protein  content,  its  relatively  low  digesti- 
bility and  its  want  of  palatability. 

Barley  straw  is  somewhat  more  valuable  than  wheat 
straw.  It  is  eaten  with  more  relish  than  the  former. 
Nevertheless,  what  has  been  said  of  wheat  straw  will  apply 
in  a  considerable  degree  to  barley  straw.  Both  barley  and 
wheat  straw  may  be  made  to  form  a  considerable  part  of 
the  fodder  fed  along  with  heavy  grain  feeding. 

Oat  straw  is  in  nearly  all  respects  more  valuable  than 
wheat  and  barley  straw.  In  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
in  feeding  milch  cows,  also  working  horses,  it  may  fre- 
quently furnish  half  the  fodder  ration,  and  in  wintering 
store  stock  it  may  furnish  the  sole  fodder  ration.  When 
bright  and  clean  it  is  eaten  with  a  relish,  and  when  available 
may  be  fed  so  as  to  economize  in  the  feeding  of  more  ex- 
pensive hay. 

Flax  straw  has  considerable  feeding  value  as  the  analy- 
sis shows.  Live  stock  are  fond  of  it  and  will  eat  it  in 
considerable  quantities  when  well  cured.  The  sfnall  grains 
which  are  blown  out  into  the  chaff  increase  its  feeding  val- 
ue. Flax  straw  like  the  grain,  though  to  a  much  less  ex- 
tent, tends  to  relax  the  bowels.  The  objection  has  been 
raised  to  flax  straw  that  because  of  the  toughness  of  its 
fibre,  it  tends  to  disturb  digestion  by  forming  indigestible 
masses  of  the  nature  of  impact  substances,  but  the  facts  do 
not  sustain  the  objection.  The  feeding  of  flax  straw  does 
away  with  the  objection  to  burying  it  in  the  soil  because  of 
its  slow  decay  in  climates  with  insufficient  rainfall. 

Pea  straw,  when  of  fine  growth  and  properly  harvested 
and  cured,  ranks  almost  as  high  for  feeding  as  clover  hay, 
but  in  moist  climates  it  is  frequently  injured  in  the  curing, 
as  it  is  easily  damaged  by  rain.  Exposure  to  two  or  three 


FOOD     FROM     CURED     FODDERS  223 

showers  in  succession  but  with  an  interval  between  them, 
will  so  lower  the  palatability  of  the  straw  that  it  becomes  of 
little  account  for  feeding.  The  nutrients,  as  with  clover 
hay  thus  exposed,  are  also  measurably  lost.  Pea  straw  has 
special  adaptation  for  being  fed  to  sheep  which  are  so  fond 
of  it  that  previous  to  the  lambing  season  good  pea  straw 
may  be  the  only  fodder  required.  It  may  also  form  the  bulk  of 
the  fodder  fed  to  cattle  that  are  being  carried  through  the 
winter,  and  a  part  of  that  fed  to  milch  cows.  Horses  also 
are  fond  of  it,  but  the  dust  which  frequently  accumulates  on 
the  plants  while  growing  and  sometimes  in  curing  renders  it 
more  or  less  unsuitable  for  the  prolonged  feeding  of  horses. 
Machine  threshing  also  lowers  the  feeding  value  since  it 
breaks  up  the  straw  and  removes  many  of  the  leaves. 

Bean  straw  is  possessed  of  high  relative  feeding  value, 
but  the  yield  of  straw  to  the  acre  is  proportionately  small. 
As  much  of  this  product  consists  of  leaves  and  pods,  the 
proportion  rejected  when  fed  is  not  usually  large.  The 
straw  is  also  more  commonly  well  saved  as  in  order  to 
insure  good  quality  in  the  grain,  it  is  necessary  to  harvest 
promptly  when  mature  and  to  protect  the  crop  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  injury  by  rain.  When  available,  bean  straw 
stands  high  in  favor  as  a  fodder  for  sheep,  and  it  may  also 
be  fed  with  decided  benefit  to  cattle.  The  earth  that  some- 
times adheres  to  the  product  is  an  objection  to  feeding  it  to 
horses.  The  straw  of  the  horse  bean  is  considerably  used 
in  feeding  live  stock  in  Scotland  and  some  other  countries, 
but  in  England  it  is  not  so  commonly  fed. 

Straw  of  good  quality  and  well  cured  is  more  valuable 
for  feeding  than  hay,  coarse  and  ill  cured.  When  fodders 
are  scarce  and  dear,  the  harvesting  of  straw  fodders  with  a 
view  to  conserve  their  good  feeding  properties  is  well  wor- 
thy of  attention.  It  is  frequently  admissible  to  use  certain 
varieties  of  straw  as  principal  portion  of  the  fodder  fed  in 
order  that  hay  may  be  sold  when  the  price  is  dear.  But 
when  straw  is  made  to  supplement  hay,  more  grain  must  be 
fed  when  grain  is  required. 


224  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

When  grasses  are  sown  with  a  cereal  nurse  crop,  it 
sometimes  happens  as  in  seasons  of  good  growth  that  grass 
is  abundantly  present  in  the  grain,  and  when  it  is,  the  straw 
thereof  is  nearly  as  valuable  as  hay.  But  when  grass  is  thus 
abundantly  present,  the  yield  of  grain  may  be  lowered. 
Timothy  sown  in  a  grain  crop  in  the  autumn,  in  some  in- 
stances furnishes  a  large  proportion  of  the  reaped  crop  and 
especially  when  the  grain  crop  partially  fails. 

Chaff  from  wheat  and  oats  is  more  valuable  than  an 
equal  weight  of  straw,  not  only  in  food  constituents  but  also 
in  palatability.  Wheat  and  oat  chaff  are  usually  eaten  with 
avidity  by  farm  animals,  but  rye  and  barley  chaff,  especially 
the  latter,  are  less  valuable  because  of  the  presence  of  the 
beards.  Some  feeders  of  barley  straw  aim  to  separate  the 
chaff  from  the  straw  as  far  as  this  may  be  practicable.  Even 
where  the  straw  is  used  solely  for  bedding,  the  plan  which 
saves  the  chaff  for  feeding  when  practicable  is  to  be  com- 
mended. 

When  straw  is  fed  in  the  uncut  form  and  especially 
when  the  supply  is  plentiful,  the  amount  fed  should  be  so 
liberal  that  the  unconsumed  portion  may  be  used  for  litter. 
This  method  of  providing  litter  is  to  be  commended,  as 
much  of  the  straw  thus  fed  is  turned  to  higher  account 
than  if  the  whole  were  used  as  litter.  This  method  of  us- 
ing straw  is  especially  to  be  recommended  in  feeding  sheep, 
as  they  are  sure  to  pick  out  and  consume  the  finer  portions. 
The  uneaten  portion  is  thus  used  to  furnish  fresh  litter 
every  day. 

When  straw  furnishes  a  large  or  principal  portion  of 
the  ration  for  live  stock,  it  frequently  tends  to  produce  more 
or  less  a  dry  condition  of  the  faeces  indicative  of  constipa- 
tion. When  a  limited  amount  of  field  roots  can  be  fed  daily 
along  with  the  straw,  this  condition  will  be  corrected.  Ten 
to  12  pounds  of  roots  fed  daily  will  suffice  for  a  mature  cat- 
tle beast.  Where  roots  are  not  available,  oil  cake  will  an- 
swer the  same  end.  It  also  adds  protein,  so  much  lacking  in 
nearly  all  kinds  of  straw. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS. 

The  seeds  of  plants  are  primarily  the  source  of  all  the 
concentrates  fed  to  farm  animals.  These  are  discussed  in 
Chapter  XII  from  the  standpoint  of  their  feeding  value,  and 
uses.  The  small  cereals  discussed  include:  (i)  Wheat;  (2) 
oats;  (3)  barley;  (4)  rye;  (5)  peas;  (6)  buckwheat  and 
(7)  speltz. 

The  seeds  distinctly  leguminous  considered  are:  (i) 
The  common  field  bean;  (2)  soy  beans;  (3)  ,the  hor^e 
bean;  (4)  cowpeas  and  (5)  vetches. 

Those  usually  primarily  grown  for  oil  production  and 
included  are:  (i)  Flax;  (2)  cottonseed  and  (3)  sunflower 
seed. 

Seeds  discussed  as  derived  from  the  sorghums  are :  ( i ) 
Sweet  sorghum  seed;  (2)  Kafir  corn  seed  and  (3)  other 
non-saccharine  sorghum  seeds. 

Those  discussed  as  miscellaneous  are:  (i)  Corn  or 
maize;  (2)  broom  corn  seed  and  (3)  millet  seed.  Rice  is 
not  discussed  because  of  the  small  extent  to  which  it  is 
fed  to  stock  save  in  the  by-products  obtained  from  it. 

Wheat. — Wheat  in  its  many  varieties  is  more  common- 
ly grown  primarily  to  provide  food  for  man.  So  important  is 
the  place  which  it  fills  in  this  respect  that  it  has  been  called 
the  "staff  of  life."  The  increase  in  its  growth,  therefore,  will 
probably  keep  pace  with  increase  in  population  in  all  civi- 
lized communities  where  the  conditions  are  favorable  to 
growing  it.  Although  it  furnishes  an  excellent  food  for  all 
kinds  of  domestic  animals  on  the  farm,  it  is  generally  con- 
sidered too  valuable  for  being  thus  fed  unless  when  of  low 
grade.  But  its  by-products,  especially  bran  and  middlings, 
comprising  nearly  one-third  by  weight  of  the  cereal,  are  of 
great  value  in  feeding  live  stock,  and  are  always  likely  to  be 
much  sought  after  for  such  a  use. 

225 


226  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

Wheat,  though  a  hardy  grain,  is  not  so  hardy  as  rye, 
nor  can  it  be  grown  in  so  short  a  season  as  barley.  The 
macaroni  varieties  are  among  the  largest  yielding  sorts  and 
have  more  of  adaptation  for  being  grown  under  hard  and 
dry  conditions  than  other  varieties.  Vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive varieties  may  frequently  be  grown  with  profit  along 
with  oats  or  barley,  or  both,  to  provide  food  for  stock.  The 
chief  advantage  from  growing  these  grains  thus  consists  in 
the  larger  yields  that  are  usually  obtained.  Wheat  is  of 
two  classes,  winter  and  spring,  and  each  has  its  own  sphere 
for  most  successful  growth.  Usually  it  ought  to  be  fed  in 
the  ground  form  except  to  sheep,  otherwise  a  considerable 
proportion  of  it  will  not  be  digested.  Because  of  the  sticky 
and  pasty  character  of  the  meal,  the  outcome  of  its  high 
gluten  content,  the  aim  should  be  to  mix  it  with  some  coarse 
substance  as  bran,  when  it  constitutes  the  sole  grain  fed. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  wheat  furnishes  an  ex- 
cellent food,  when  the  price  will  admit  of  its  being  so  fed. 
To  the  former  it  may  be  fed  alone.  The  addition  of  oats, 
however,  to  the  extent  of  one-half  the  grain  part  of  the  ra- 
tion, will  improve  it  except  in  the  case  of  calves  during  the 
first  two  or  three  weeks  after  they  begin  to  take  meal. 

For  beef  cattle,  ground  wheat  has  been  found  about 
equal  pound  for  pound,  to  ground  corn.  When  the  two  are 
fed  in  conjunction,  however,  they  make  a  better  food  than 
either  fed  alone,  especially  when  the  wheat  element  prepon- 
derates during  the  first  part  of  the  fattening  period  and  the 
corn  element  during  the  last.  The  bran  present  in  ground 
wheat  exerts  an  influence  more  or  less  helpful  in  keeping 
the  bowels  in  tone.  Some  bran  added,  also  oil  meal,  makes 
it  less  sticky  in  character. 

For  cows  giving  milk,  wheat  meal  fed  with  suitable  ad- 
juncts has  been  found  fully  equal  to  corn  meal.  Mixed 
grains,  however,  of  which  wheat  meal  is  a  part,  will  doubt- 
less prove  superior  to  wheat  meal  fed  alone  for  prolonged 
feeding.  But  for  milk  production,  the  by-products  of  wheat 
are  more  suitable  than  wheat,  as  they  contain  a  higher 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  227 

relative  protein  content,  and  usually  they  are  considerably 
cheaper.  It  is  in  order  to  feed  a  higher  proportion  of  wheat 
meal  to  cows  giving  milk  than  would  be  admissible  of  corn 
meal,  the  fodder  adjuncts  being  the  same. 

For  sheep,  wheat  is  superior  to  corn  when  fed  to  young 
lambs  and  breeding  ewes.  Wheat  and  oats  in  any  desired 
proportions  make  an  excellent  grain  food  for  them.  It  is 
also  superior  to  corn  when  fed  alone  or  as  a  factor  during 
the  early  stages  of  fattening,  but  corn  will  result  in  some- 
what quicker  gains  in  the  later  stages  of  the  same.  It  is  ex- 
cellent as  a  food  for  preparing  sheep  for  show  purposes, 
as  it  produces  flesh,  plentiful  and  firm. 

For  young  and  growing  swine,  wheat  is  much  superior 
to  corn.  For  swine  that  are  being  fattened,  they  are  about 
equal,  pound  for  pound,  in  production,  but  the  quality  of 
the  meat  made  from  wheat  is  superior.  Tests  have  shown 
that  greater  gains  have  been  secured  from  feeding  ground 
wheat  and  corn  or  barley  to  swine  that  are  being  fattened, 
than  from  feeding  either  alone.  Such  swine  should  produce 
one  pound  of  increase  from  rather  less  than  five  pounds  of 
wheat,  and  greater  relative  increase  should  result  from  feed- 
ing it  to  pigs  previous  to  the  fattening  season.  It  should 
be  fed  ground  and  soaked  in  milk  or  water  for  six  to  12 
hours,  according  to  the  season.  Skim  milk  and  ground 
wheat  make  an  excellent  food  for  young  pigs.  If  wheat  is 
fed  unground  to  swine  it  should  be  soaked  18  to  24  hours. 
Thus  prepared,  it  had  been  found  nearly  if  not  quite  equal 
to  ground  wheat  when  the  cost  of  the  grinding  is  also  con- 
sidered. If  fed  in  the  natural  state,  a  large  per  cent  will 
appear  in  the  voidings.  Although  swine  will  make  a  good 
growth  while  gleaning  amid  wheat  stubbles  where  they  con- 
sume the  fallen  heads,  they  do  not  fatten  readily  on  un- 
threshed  wheat,  though  it  should  be  plentifully  supplied  to 
them  in  the  sheaf. 

For  feeding  horses,  wheat  has  not  been  much  tested. 
The  tests  made  have  tended  to  show  that  when  wheat  has 


228  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

been  fed  as  the  sole  grain  ration  to  working  horses,  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  grain  was  voided  undigested, 
and  in  time  there  was  a  decided  tendency  to  digestive  de- 
rangement. It  would  seem  probable,  however,  that  wheat 
ground  and  fed  with  oats  ground  or  unground,  up  to  the  ex- 
tent of  one-half  the  ration,  would  make  an  excellent  grain 
food  for  horses. 

Contrasted  with  corn,  it  may  be  said  that  wheat  is  su- 
perior; (i)  As  a  food  for  young  animals  and  for  cows  in 
milk,  since  it  is  richer  in  protein  and  ash;  (2)  as  being  a 
safer  grain  food  during  the  early  stages  of  fattening,  be- 
cause it  is  relatively  lower  in  its  fat  content,  and,  therefore, 
does  not  tend  so  much  to  put  animals  off  feed;  (3)  it  is 
equal  or  about  equal  to  corn  in  making  increase  with  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  swine  while  being  fattened,  and  it  furnishes 
meat  somewhat  superior  to  that  furnished  by  corn,  having 
more  muscle  in  it. 

Corn  is  superior  to  wheat:  (i)  In  its  fattening  quali- 
ties; (2)  in  that  it  may  usually  be  fed  without  grinding  and 
(3)  in  that  it  may  usually  be  obtained  more  cheaply.  They 
are  about  equal  in  palatability.  Wheat  is  grown  over  a 
wider  area  than  corn  and  can  be  grown  in  a  drier  and  cooler 
climate.  While  it  is  probable  that  it  will  seldom  be  found 
advisable  in  the  future  to  feed  wheat  of  good  quality  to 
stock,  because  of  the  price,  it  will  always  be  in  order  to 
feed  damaged  wheat  as  when  shrunken  by  rust  or  by  frost. 
Such  wheat  has  a  higher  muscle-producing  content  than 
good  wheat.  In  some  localities,  it  may  be  found  that  grow- 
ing wheat  with  other  grain  for  food  for  stock  will  be  the 
cheapest  method  of  obtaining  bran  or  its  equivalent. 

Oats. — Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  general  adapta- 
tion for  feeding  live  stock,  no  cereal  grown  in  this  country 
will  compare  with  the  oat.  It  is  preeminently  the  grain 
food  for  horses.  In  milk  production,  it  is  almost  equally 
valuable.  It  may  be  made  to  constitute  a  large  proportion 
of  the  ration  in  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  and  it  is  useful 
as  a  factor  in  feeding  swine,  but  not  so  useful  relatively  as 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  22Q 

in  feeding  other  classes  of  stock  because  of  the  relatively 
large  amount  of  hull  which  it  possesses,  ill  adapted  to  the 
digestion  of  swine.  In  suitability  for  young  stock,  it  is 
without  a  rival  among  concentrated  foods.  No  other  cereal 
can  be  fed  to  stock  with  entire  safety  or  in  quantities  so 
large  for  an  equally  prolonged  period.  It  is  also  a  valuable 
breakfast  food  for  man. 

The  high  relative  value  of  the  oat  for  general  feeding 
is  the  outcome  of  the  high  palatability  which  it  possesses, 
the  equilibrium  in  the  nutrients  which  give  it  balance  as  a 
food,  and  the  relation  between  the  hull  and  kernel  which 
gives  it  a  proper  amount  of  concentration  and  not  too  much 
for  safe  feeding.  The  chief  obstacle  in  the  way  of  its  more 
extensive  use  on  the  farm  is  the  high  relative  value  which  it 
usually  commands  on  the  market. 

While  the  oat  grows  reasonably  well  in  some  parts  of 
all  the  states  of  the  union,  it  grows  much  better  relatively 
in  the  northern  states.  All  the  provinces  of  Canada  have 
high  adaptation  for  growing  oats.  The  weight  of  a  measured 
bushel  varies  from  20  pounds  in  some  varieties  in  the  south 
to  50  pounds  in  others  in  the  northwestern  states  and  prov- 
inces of  Canada.  As  the  adaptation  for  corn  production  de- 
creases because  of  low  temperature,  that  for  oat  produc- 
tion increases.  To  provide  food  for  stock,  the  crop  may 
be  grown  alone,  with  wheat  or  barley  or  with  both. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  oats  are  a  grand  food. 
In  the  ground  form,  they  are  excellent  for  young  calves  and 
for  calves  more  advanced  in  age,  they  are  equally  good.  For 
such  feeding  they  may  be  fed  alone  with  wheat  bran,  ground 
barley  or  ground  corn,  according  to  the  degree  of  the  flesh 
sought  and  in  proportions  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  animals. 
When  fed  alone  or  with  bran,  the  calves  may  be  allowed  to 
partake  of  them  at  will,  when  the  cost  is  not  too  great.  To 
young  cattle  that  are  older,  about  the  only  limitation  that 
may  be  put  on  the  feeding  of  oats  is  that  which  is  usually 
present,  resulting  from  the  relatively  high  value  of  this 
cereal. 


230  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

For  beef  cattle,  they  make  an  excellent  adjunct  to  corn, 
barley  or  rye,  rather  than  a  substitute  for  these,  when 
ground  and  mixed  with  one  or  more  of  the  foods  named. 
The  hulls  as  in  the  case  of  bran  add  so  much  to  the  bulk 
that  the  juices  of  the  stomach  more  readily  penetrate  the 
meal  thus  fed.  When  oats  are  not  too  high,  they  may  con- 
stitute from  one-half  to  one-fourth  of  the  entire  grain  fed, 
more  being  given  during  the  early  stages  of  fattening  and 
less  later. 

For  cows  in  milk,  oats  are  at  least  as  valuable  as  bran, 
pound  for  pound.  If  there  is  a  difference,  ground  oats  is 
probably  the  superior.  The  extent  to  which  they  may  be 
fed  to  cows  in  milk  depends  in  a  considerable  degree  on 
market  values.  They  may  be  made  to  constitute  the  whole 
of  the  grain  fed  or  any  part  of  it.  Even  when  oats  are 
somewhat  more  expensive  than  corn,  it  will  be  found  profit- 
able to  combine  them  with  corn  in  the  ration.  With  such 
fodders  as  clover  hay  and  corn  stover  fed  in  conjunction, 
wheat  bran,  ground  oats  and  ground  corn,  barley,  or  rye, 
fed  in  about  equal  parts  by  weight,  make  an  excellent  grain 
ration. 

For  sheep,  oats  make  a  most  excellent  grain  food. 
There  is  probably  no  better  grain  food  on  which  to  start 
young  lambs  than  ground  oats  with  the  hulls  sifted  out. 
Even  unsifted,  they  serve  the  purpose  reasonably  well,  and 
later  it  is  not  necessary  even  to  grind  them.  For  milk-lambs 
that  are  being  fattened,  oats,  cracked  corn  and  oil  cake  in 
the  nut  form  or  as  meal,  in  the  proportions  of  2,  2  and  i 
parts  by  weight,  make  a  suitable  grain  ration.  To  lambs 
that  are  being  fattened,  oats,  cracked  corn  and  oil  cake  in 
food,  in  quantity  from  one-fourth  of  a  pound  upward  daily, 
or  they  may  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  grain  given,  the  other 
part  consisting  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  corn  or  peas,  or  of  a 
mixture  of  these.  To  breeding  ewes,  they  may  be  similarly 
fed  up  to  the  amount  of  one  pound  per  day,  before  the 
lambing  season,  and  practically  without  stint,  subsequently, 
as  long  as  the  ewes  are  on  dry  feed.  To  sheep  that  are 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  23! 

being  fattened,  they  may  constitute  the  sole  grain  ration, 
under  some  conditions,  but  gains  considerably  higher  will 
result  if  corn  is  fed  along  with  them.  From  the  standpoint 
of  increase,  it  would  probably  be  within  bounds  to  say  that 
the  proportion  should  vary  from  two-thirds  oats  and  one- 
third  corn  at  the  commencement  of  the  fattening  season  to 
two-thirds  corn  and  one-third  oats  at  its  close.  No  grain 
food  has  higher  adaptation  for  sheep,  while  they  are  being 
led  up  to  full  feed  than  oats.  Other  grain,  as  wheat,  barley, 
rye  or  peas  may  be  substituted  for  corn,  but  except  in  the 
case  of  wheat,  the  results  will  not  usually  be  quite  so  good. 

For  swine,  and  especially  for  young  swine,  the  adapta- 
tion is  not  high,  unless  the  hulls  are  sifted  out.  When  so 
sifted,  the  reverse  is  true.  For  swine  subsequent  to  wean- 
ing, the  adaptation  of  unsifted  oats  is  not  more  than  medium, 
and  for  swine  that  are  being  fattened,  ground  oats  are  con- 
siderably inferior  to  corn.  When  the  price  will  admit  of  so 
feeding  them,  they  make  a  good  food  for  brood  sows  that 
are  nursing  pigs.  They  should -be  ground  and  soaked  when 
fed  to  swine. 

For  horses,  no  substitute  has  been  found  that  will  equal 
them,  none  has  been  found  so  healthful  or  that  will  give 
and  maintain  the  same  degree  of  mettle  and  staying  power. 
Oats,  therefore,  usually  fed  unground  except  to  young  foals 
or  to  horses  whose  teeth  have  failed,  may  make  the  sole 
grain  food  for  all  animals  of  this  class,  or  they  may  make 
a  part,  preferably  a  principal  part,  usually  not  less  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  same.  For  American  feeding,  when  the  prices 
will  admit  of  it,  the  other  third  may  be  corn,  barley,  rye  or 
wheat.  In  some  countries  of  northwestern  Europe,  horse 
beans  are  freely  fed  with  oats.  More  corn  may  be  fed  in 
winter,  particularly  to  horses  and  mules  at  work,  than  would 
be  advisable  in  summer.  The  opinion  that  newly  matured 
oats  should  not  be  fed  in  very  large  quantities  to  horses  is 
held  by  many,  but  all  authorities  are  not  agreed  as  to 
whether  there  is  hazard  in  so  feeding  them. 


232  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

Barley. — Barley,  at  one  time  a  principal  source  of  food 
for  the  human  family,  is  grown  almost  exclusively  in  the 
United  States  for  brewing  and  as  food  for  live  stock.  It  has 
been  grown  successfully  as  far  north  as  Alaska  and  as  far 
south  as  the  tablelands  of  New  Mexico.  In  altitudes  where 
the  grain  fails  to  fully  mature,  it  is  sometimes  grown  and  fed 
as  hay.  Westward  from  the  eastern  Rockies  and  southward 
from  Montana  where  corn  and  oats  do  not  flourish  equally 
well,  it  is  more  largely  fed  to  live  stock  than  elsewhere  in 
the  United  States.  The  relatively  high  price  paid  for  bright 
barley  for  brewing  tends  greatly  to  restrict  its  use  for  feed- 
ing. When  stained  by  unpropitious  weather  at  the  harvest 
season,  and  thus  injured  for  malting,  it  is  not  injured,  at 
least  to  any  appreciable  extent,  for  feeding.  For  the  latter 
purpose,  it  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  corn  where  corn 
cannot  be  successfully  grown. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  barley  should  seldom  or 
never  form  the  sole  grain  ration,  unless  when  fed  sparingly 
with  adjuncts  rich  in  protein.  It  seldom  constitutes  more 
than  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  entire  meal  ration  fed, 
the  other  portion  being  bran  alone,  oats  alone  or  both  with 
a  trace  of  oil  cake  when  profitably  obtainable.  Other  ni- 
trogenous foods,  as  gluten  meal  or  cotton  seed,  may  some- 
times be  substituted  for  bran  and  oats. 

For  beef  cattle,  ground  barley  furnishes  an  excellent 
meal  adjunct.  With  luguminous  fodders  as  clover  and 
alfalfa,  it  may  be  fed  when  the  season  is  short  rather  than 
long,  so  as  to  furnish  up  to  three-fourths  of  the  entire  meal 
ration,  the  other  portion  being  preferably  ground  oats  or 
wheat  bran.  For  prolonged  feeding,  corn  added  to  the 
barley  in  any  proportion  desired,  somewhat  improves  the 
ration  in  palatability  and  also  for  fattening. 

For  cows  in  milk,  ground  barley  has  been  found  about 
equal  to  corn.  It  Js  somewhat  richer  in  .protein  than  corn, 
but  has  more  crude  fibre  and  is  not  quite  so  palatable.  It 
is  too  concentrated  to  furnish  the  exclusive  grain  food  for 
milch  cows,  but  gives  excellent  results  when  fed  with 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  233 

ground  oats  or  wheat  bran,  the  barley  furnishing  about  one- 
third  of  the  grain  by  weight  or  even  a  larger  proportion. 
The  mixture  of  oats  and  barley  may  be  obtained  in  many 
instances  with  greater  profit  by  growing  the  two  together; 
when  fed  freely  with  large  quantities  of  field  roots,  it  tends 
to  counteract  undue  laxity  of  the  bowels. 

For  sheep,  unground  barley  is  valuable  when  fed  in 
suitable  combinations.  Fed  as  part  of  the  grain  ration  to 
lambs  while  nursing  or  subsequently,  especially  in  conjunc- 
tion with  oats,  the  results  are  satisfactory.  It  may  suitably 
form  from  one-third  to  one-half  the  grain  ration  for  breed- 
ing ewes,  the  other  portion  being  preferably  unground  oats 
and  a  small  proportion  of  wheat  bran  or  oil  cake.  To  sheep 
that  are  being  fattened,  the  fodder  being  rich. in  protein,  it 
may  furnish  the  sole  grain  ration,  but  when  not  less  than 
one-third  of  the  grain  ration  is  oats  or  corn,  according  to 
the  advancement  of  the  feeding,  better  results  may  be 
looked  for. 

For  swine,  barley  stands  at  the  head  of  all  cereals  in 
producing  high  quality  pork,  because  of  the  firmness  and 
flavor  which  it  imparts.  Experiments  carefully  conducted 
have  shown  that  ground  barley  when  fed  to  swine  produced 
8  per  cent  less  increase  than  corn.  Ground  and  soaked,  it 
has  special  adaptation  for  being  fed  along  with  skim  milk 
and  clover,  alfalfa  or  vetch  pasture  up  to  the  fattening  pe- 
riod. During  the  fattening  period,  it  may  furnish  the  sole 
grain  food,  but  corn  in  such  proportion  as  will  suit  the  end 
sought  will  add  to  the  palatability  of  the  food,  and  conse- 
quently will  improve  the  gains.  Barley  will  probably  be 
much  more  used  in  the  United  States  for  feeding  swine  as 
it  is  now  in  Canada,  when  the  bacon  idea  in  pork  production 
becomes  more  pronounced.  The  bald  varieties,  pound  for 
pound,  should  also  be  more  valuable  than  the  other  varieties, 
because  of  the  less  amount  of  hull  in  the  former. 

For  horses,  barley  stands  next  to  oats  in  suitability  as 
a  grain  food.  Where  the  prices  will  admit  of  so  doing,  it 
may  be  used  as  the  principal  or  even  sole  grain  ration,  as 


234  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

has  been  shown  in  the  practice  of  Bedouin  Arabs,  of 
certain  peoples  of  northwestern  Europe  and  now  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  other  mountain  states.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
barley,  pound  for  pound,  is  more  valuable  as  a  food  for 
horses  than  oats,  because  of  the  much  larger  percentage  oi 
hull  in  oats,  a  claim  that  has  not  been  sustained  by  evidence 
based  on  experiment.  It  is  not  equal  to  oats  for  colts,  being 
somewhat  lower  in  protein  and  ash,  nor  is  it  so  palatable  as 
oats  for  long  continued  feeding.  It  may,  however,  be  prof- 
itably fed  with  oats  to  working  horses,  either  whole  or  in 
the  crushed  form  in  any  proportions  that  the  attendant  cir- 
cumstances will  justify.  Steamed  until  the  grain  has  swollen 
to  maximum  possible  distension,  and  fed  with  a  little  bran 
or  oil  cake  added  to  it  as  frequently  as  may  be  found  nec- 
essary, tends  to  make  flesh  quickly  and  to  improve  the  coat, 
as  when  preparing  horses  for  exhibition. 

Rye. — Rye  is  probably  the  hardiest  of  the  cereals,  pro- 
duces the  best  crops  on  poor  land  and  grows  over  the  widest 
area.  It  is  much  grown  on  lands  too  low  in  fertility  to  yield 
good  crops  of  wheat,  oats  or  barley.  It  is  grown  not  only  to 
furnish  grain  but  also  pasture  and  green  manure.  Of  the  two 
classes,  winter  and  spring  rye,  the  former  is  grown  to  a  far 
greater  extent  than  the  latter.  In  Europe,  especially  central 
Europe,  it  is  much  grown  as  food  for  man  and  also  for  live 
stock,  including  horses.  In  the  United  States,  it  is  grown 
almost  entirely  to  furnish  food  for  stock.  It  may  be  grown 
successfully  in  almost  every  state  in  the  Union.  While  its 
constituents  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  wheat  in  prac- 
tical feeding,  it  has  been  found  from  5  to  10  per  cent  less 
valuable,  owing,  it  is  thought,  to  the  less  degree  of  the  pala- 
tability.  It  is  fed  to  horses  and  sheep  in  the  unground  form 
but  is  ground  when  fed  to  cattle  and  also  to  swine,  except 
when  swine  are  allowed  to  harvest  it  in  the  field. 

To  calves  and  growing  cattle,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed 
rye  in  conjunction  with  some  other  grain  product.  What 
has  been  said  about  feeding  barley  to  these  classes  of  ani- 
mals will  apply  about  equally  to  rye  (see  p.  232).  It  should 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  "  235 

seldom  form  more  than  one-third  of  the  meal  fed  in  pro- 
longed feeding. 

To  beef  cattle,  rye  may  be  fed  with  much  freedom, 
where  the  necessity  exists  for  so  feeding  it.  This  necessity 
is,  however,  seldom  present,  as  corn  is  usually  cheaper, 
hence  the  larger  the  proportion  of  the  corn  fed,  the  more 
economical  is  the  ration.  It  is  also  better  relished.  Wheat 
bran  in  the  proportions  of  say  one  part  by  weight  to  three 
or  four  parts  rye  meal  tends  much  to  improve  the  ration. 
It  renders  the  meal  less  adhesive  and  adds  to  the  protein 
content.  The  same  is  measurably  true  of  ground  oats  which, 
however,  are  usually  too  valuable  to  be  much  used  in  such 
feeding.  Other  nitrogeneous  by-products  as  oil  cake  may 
sometimes  be  fed  in  the  place  of  bran,  but  the  necessity  of 
adding  these  to  the  rye  meal  and  the  advantage  from  the 
same  are  much  dependent  on  the  extent  to  which  protein  is 
present  in  the  fodder. 

To  cows  giving  milk,  rye  meal  may  be  fed  in  reason- 
able quantities,  but  if  more  than  3  pounds  are  fed  per  cow 
daily,  hazard  may  be  present  that  the  quality  of  the  butter 
product  will  be  affected  adversely,  hence  when  fed,  it  is 
common  to  give  a  less  quantity  than  that  named.  Equal 
parts  by  weight  of  ground  rye,  ground  oats  and  wheat  bran 
with  ordinary  fodders  make  a  very  suitable  grain  ration, 
also  equal  parts  of  rye,  oat  and  corn  meal  and  wheat  bran 
with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  If  fed  with  wheat  bran  only, 
the  bran  should  furnish  not  less  than  one-third  of  the  meal 
ration. 

To  lambs,  rye  is  not  commonly  fed,  but  may  be  so  fed 
with  oats  even  with  benefit,  where  the  latter  furnish  the 
larger  portion  of  the  grain  ration.  Similarly  it  may  be  thus 
fed  to  breeding  ewes  and  in  larger  proportions,  when  the 
roughage  is  rich  in  protein  elements.  To  sheep  that  are 
being  fattened,  it  is  not  usual,  nor  would  it  probably  be  wise, 
to  feed  rye,  making  it  more  than  half  the  ration  for  pro- 
longed feeding,  since  sheep,  in  common  with  all  other  do- 
mestic animals,  are  less  fond  and  tire  of  it  sooner  than  of 


236  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

some  other  kinds  of  grain.  Rye,  corn  and  oats  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one,  two  and  one  parts  respectively  make  an 
excellent  grain  ration  for  sheep  on  full  feed  along  with 
clover  or  alfalfa. 

To  swine,  rye  may  be  fed  about  the  same  as  barley  (see 
p.  233),  except  that  for  prolonged  feeding,  it  should  not  fur- 
nish the  sole  grain  portion,  since  thus  fed,  swine  tire  of  it 
more  quickly  even  than  of  barley.  Corn,  fed  along  with  it 
in  such  proportion  as  will  furnish  the  quality  of  pork  de- 
sired, will  add  to  the  palatability  of  the  food  and  also  in 
some  degree  to  the  gains.  Experiments  conducted  in  Den- 
mark have  shown  that  rye  and  barley  are  almost  equal  in 
value  in  making  pork,  when  fed  with  dairy  by-products, 
both  with  reference  to  gains  and  to  the  quality  of  the  pork. 
In  the  tests  made  in  that  country,  it  was  found  that  corn 
made  pork  less  firm  as  a  rule,  in  proportion  as  it  was  fed, 
and  therefore  less  suitable  for  high  class  bacon.  In  ordi- 
nary fattening,  however,  the  aim  should  be  to  add  corn 
freely  to  the  rye. 

To  horses,  rye  is  seldom  fed  in  the  United  States  and 
largely  for  the  reason  probably,  that  it  is  seldom  sufficiently 
plentiful  and  cheap  to  admit  of  feeding  it  thus.  Rut  it  is 
quite  suitable  for  being  so  fed,  especially  to  horses  at  work 
in  conjunction  with  oats.  A  mixture  of  one-third  rye  and 
two-thirds  oats  is  suitable  for  even  prolonged  feeding. 

pe?s. — The  peas  in  the  United  States,  usually  desig- 
nated the  Canada  field  pea,  should  be  far  more  widely  grown 
than  it  is  at  the  present  time,  because  of  its  excellent  feed- 
ing qualities,  and  also  for  the  reason  that  it  is  a  legume, 
and,  therefore,  leaves  the  kind  on  which  it  grew  rich  in  ni- 
trogen. Its  protein  content  is  high,  hence  it  has  peculiar 
adaptation  as  food  for  animals  in  process  of  development. 
Being  adapted  to  climates  with  only  moderate  summer  tem- 
peratures, the  pea  grows  best  in  this  country  in  the  northern 
states  and  on  reasonably  high  plateaus  of  the  mountain 
states.  Nearly  all  the  provinces  of  Canada  have  high  adap- 
tation for  the  growing  of  peas.  One  chief  obstacle  to  the 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  237 

extension  of  their  growth  in  the  United  States  is  the  labor 
involved  in  harvesting  them,  which  is  more  relatively  than 
with  other  cereals,  except  corn.  This  may  be  met  by  growing 
peas  and  oats  together  in  proportions  that  will  not  preclude 
the  harvesting  of  the  mixed  crop  with  the  binder.  The  mix- 
ture thus  grown  furnishes  an  excellent  grain  food  for  many 
kinds  of  feeding.  The  relatively  high  price  of  peas  in  this 
country  also  stands  in  the  way  of  their  more  general  use 
in  feeding  stock. 

To  calves  and  young  cattle,  peas  furnish  an  excellent 
grain  food  when  fed  as  a  meal  adjunct.  The  meal  is  heavy 
and  lies  compactly,  hence,  when  fed  to  cattle  and  other  ani- 
mals, it  should  be  along  with  bran,  ground  oats,  corn,  bar- 
ley, rye  or  a  mixture  of  these  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
feeding.  Ground  peas  and  oats  in  equal  parts  by  weight, 
make  an  excellent  meal  ration  for  calves.  Later  the  propor- 
tion of  oats  or  bran,  if  bran  is  fed,  should  be  increased, 
chiefly  on  the  score  of  economy  in  feeding. 

To  beef  cattle,  peas  may  be  fed  in  proportions  varying 
from  25  to  75  per  cent  of  the  meal  fed,  the  proportion  of 
peas  being  increased  with  the  advance  of  the  feeding  period 
when  fed  with  oats.  From  the  standpoint  of  increase, 
ground  peas,  oats  and  corn,  barley  or  rye,  in  equal  propor- 
tions by  weight,  furnish  an  excellent  grain  food.  Bran  may 
be  substituted  for  oats  if  cheaper. 

For  co-ivs  in  milk,  a  mixture  of  ground  peas  and  oats 
grown  together,  so  that  about  two-thirds  of  the  mixture 
will  be  oats,  furnishes  an  ideal  grain  food.  Here  also  bran 
may  be  substituted  for  oats.  In  northern  areas,  this  mix- 
ture may  be  readily  grown  on  many  farms  and  it  has  the 
further  value  of  furnishing  fodder  that  is  much  relished 
when  well  saved. 

For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened,  a  grain  mixture  fed 
unground,  and  consisting  of  peas  and  oats,  the  peas  making 
from  25  to  75  per  cent  of  the  grain  ration  according  to  the 
stage  of  the  fattening,  will  give  excellent  results.  For 
breeding  ewes  on  dry  feed,  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the 


238  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

grain  fed  may  be  peas,  whether  fed  before  or  after  the  lamb- 
ing season.  The  same  mixture  is  also  good  for  feeding 
lambs,  and  if  the  lambs  are  being  forced  for  the  early  mar- 
ket, the  addition  of  cracked  corn  will  improve  the  grain  ra- 
tion. On  certain  plateaus  of  the  Rocky  mountain  states,  the 
fattening  of  sheep  and  lambs  on  mature  peas  grazed  down 
by  the  sheep,  is  becoming  an  industry  of  no  little  impor- 
tance. Enough  oats  are  sown  with  the  peas  to  sustain  them. 
The  dry  autumns  in  the  areas  named,  make  such  feeding  en- 
tirely feasible  and  with  but  little  waste. 

For  swine,  peas  have  special  adaptation.  A  mixture  of 
peas  and  oats  ground,  or  peas  and  bran  soaked  from  six  to 
12  hours  according  to  the  weather,  furnish  a  grand  food 
for  brood  sows  nursing  their  young.  Unground  or  ground 
they  may  be  fed  with  much  freedom  to  brood  sows  that  are 
pregnant,  the  other  portion  of  the  diet  consisting  largely  of 
field  roots  or  pasture.  For  swine,  during  the  growing  pe- 
riod, they  may  be  made  to  furnish  the  sole  grain  supplement 
or  a  part  of  it.  When  swine  are  grazed  on  alfalfa  or  clover 
pasture,  equal  parts  of  peas  and  corn,  both  fed  unground, 
will  furnish  excellent  supplemental  grain  food.  Swine  may 
be  fattened  in  the  pens  or  in  the  fields  where  they  harvest 
the  crop,  on  peas  alone.  The  peas  may  be  fed  dry  or 
soaked.  Peas  may  also  be  fed  during  the  fattening  period 
along  with  corn,  barley,  wheat  or  rye,  so  as  to  form  any 
part  of  the  fattening  ration  that  may  be  desired.  The  bar- 
ley and  rye,  however,  must  be  ground.  The  few  experi- 
ments conducted  tend  to  show  that  peas  make  more  increase 
than  corn,  pound  for  pound,  when  fed  to  swine  and  they 
make  a  somewhat  superior  quality  of  pork. 

When  swine  are  fattened  on  peas  harvested  by  them, 
they  may  be  admitted  to  the  peas,  when  they  have  neared 
the  maturing  stage.  They  may  glean  at  will  after  the  first 
few  days  and  only  require  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  in  ad- 
dition. 

In  wet  climates,  peas  cannot  be  profitably  gleaned  thus, 
as  the  swine  shell  out  many  of  the  peas  and  these  will  sprout 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  239 

in  moist  weather,  which  soon  renders  them  useless  for  feed- 
ing. In  some  localities,  however,  this  method  is  eminently 
practical.  Swine  not  being  fattened  should  finish  the  glean- 
ing. 

In  some  of  the  western  mountain  valleys,  it  is  claimed 
that  swine  can  be  made  to  gather  their  own  food  all  the 
year  by  growing  peas,  alfalfa,  bald  barley  and  artichokes. 
Some  peas,  stacked  so  that  they  are  accessible  to  the  swine 
on  alfalfa,  during  the  early  summer  months,  furnish  the 
needed  grain  food  at  that  season. 

To  horses,  peas  are  not  usually  fed  to  any  considerable 
extent.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  fed 
in  certain  proportions  to  horses  young  and  old,  when  suf- 
ficiently plentiful.  Peas  and  oats  go  well  together,  the  pre- 
ponderating factor  being  oats.  For  foals,  and  even  for 
horses,  the  results  will  be  more  satisfactory  if  the  grain  has 
been  ground. 

Buckwheat. — Buckwheat  may  be  grown  in  nearly  all 
the  various  states  and  provinces  of  Canada.  It  is  not  grown 
to  any  considerable  extent,  however,  in  the  southern,  south- 
western and  western  states,  or  in  the  western  provinces  of 
Canada.  More  is  grown  in  the  New  England  states  and  those 
adjacent  to  them  elsewhere.  Maine  leads  the  states  in  the 
yields  obtained,  the  average  for  the  last  ten  years  being  30 
bushels  an  acre,  whereas  for  the  United  States  it  has  been 
less  than  20  bushels  in  the  same  period.  It  is  a  strong  point 
in  favor  of  buckwheat  that  it  may  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop 
in  the  early  summer  on  land  that  might  otherwise  be  idle.  It 
may  also  be  grown  successfully  on  land  that  has  been  neg- 
lected or  low  in  fertility.  It  matures  in  about  75  days  from 
the  date  of  sowing.  It  is  usually  fed  to  live  stock  in  the 
ground  form,  save  when  fed  to  sheep,  horses  and  poultry.  Its 
highest  adaptation  is  found  in  feeding  poultry.  Owing  to  the 
demand  for  it  to  make  flour  to  be  used  in  making  cakes  for 
the  table,  its  use  as  a  food  for  live  stock  is  much  circum- 
scribed. 


240  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

To  cattle  of  any  kind,  buckwheat  has  not  been  much 
fed,  but  may  be  so  fed  when  it  can  be  spared  for  such  a 
use.  Being  low  in  protein  and  rich  in  starch,  it  is  better 
adapted  relatively  for  fattening  than  for  milk  production. 
When  fed  for  the  latter  use,  it  should  be  with  grain  or  meal 
rich  in  nitrogen,  as  for  instance,  bran.  For  fattening  uses, 
it  is  preferably  fed  with  some  coarse  meal,  as  ground  oats, 
since  as  meal  it  is  dense  in  character  and  inclined  to  be 
clammy  when  moistened.  It  is  seldom  that  it  may  be  prof- 
itably fed  so  as  to  make  more  than  half  the  ration. 

For  sheep. — Although  not  much  used  for  the  purpose, 
buckwheat  may  be  satisfactorily  used  in  feeding  sheep  kept 
for  breeding  or  that  are  being  fattened.  For  a  breeding 
flock,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  the  buckwheat  with  such 
grain  as  oats,  the  oats  preponderating  in  the  ration,  but  in 
fattening  sheep  the  buckwheat  should  rather  preponderate, 
especially  as  the  fattening  period  is  advanced. 

For  swine,  buckwheat  is  more  used  than  in  feeding  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  horses.  To  swine  also  it  ought  to  be  fed  as 
a  grain  factor  rather  than  as  the  sole  grain  food.  In  ex- 
periments conducted  at  Ottawa,  Canada,  more  rapid 
growth  and  gains  were  made  from  feeding  buckwheat  as 
half  the  ration  than  when  wheat  was  similarly  fed,  but  to 
make  100  pounds  of  gain,  called  for  feeding  6  per  cent 
more  buckwheat.  The  other  half  of  the  ration  was  meal 
mixed  in  character.  The  result  shows  a  relatively  high 
feeding  value  in  buckwheat  for  swine,  but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  it  is  rather  adapted  to  feeding  for  fat  than 
for  growth.  The  meal  should  be  well  soaked  before  feed- 
ing it  to  swine. 

For  horses,  it  has  been  fed  as  a  conditioner  rather  than 
for  sustenance  and  growth.  It  has  proved  fairly  satisfac- 
tory for  such  a  use,  as  it  not  only  improves  the  flesh  when 
it  makes  any  considerable  proportion  of  the  grain  ration, 
but  it  also  exercises  a  marked  influence  on  the  glossiness  of 
the  coat. 


FOOD  FROM   CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  24! 

The  opinion  prevails  that  when  the  feeding  of  buck- 
wheat is  prolonged,  and  especially  when  it  forms  any  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  ration,  that  it  tends  to  induce 
more  or  less  of  irritation  in  the  skin  and  to  the  extent  of  be- 
ing a  disturbing  factor.  This  opinion  would  seem  to  rest 
upon  a  real  basis.  It  is  also  claimed  that  the  hulls  have 
made  trouble  when  buckwheat  meal  has  been  fed  very  freely 
to  swine.  The  hulls  are  not  readily  digested. 

Speltz. — This  grain  is  really  Emmer,  Triticum  dicoc- 
cum,  rather  than  Triticum  spelta,  but  it  is  better  known  by 
the  name  speltz  or  spelt.  It  has  special  adaptation  for  areas 
where  the  short  season  for  growth  and  the  lack  of  moisture 
is  such  as  to  make  the  production  of  the  common  cereals 
more  or  less  precarious.  It  is,  therefore,  grown  chiefly  in 
the  semi-arid  belt  of  the  West  and  in  the  country  adjacent 
thereto.  It  is  more  drought  resistant  than  either  corn  or 
wheat,  is  not  easily  injured  by  rust  and  does  not  lodge  read- 
ily. Notwithstanding  these  good  qualities,  it  is  not  likely 
that  it  will  ever  supplant  the  more  common  cereals  where 
these  can  be  grown  at  their  best,  as  it  is  not  fully  equal  to 
these  in  all  round  feeding  value  and,  under  the  conditions 
named,  will  not  prove  relatively  more  productive.  It  is  fed 
in  the  unground  form  to  sheep  and  poultry  and  may  be  so 
fed  to  horses,  but  when  fed  to  other  live  stock  it  should  first 
be  ground.  In  composition  it  is  somewhat  similar  to  barley, 
but  the  hull  which  constitutes  about  25  per  cent  of  the  grain 
is  somewhat  more  pronounced  and  it  has  more  crude  fibre 
than  barley.  The  trend  of  experiments  shows  that  it  is  not 
fully  equal  to  barley  in  feeding  value. 

For  calves  and  cattle,  during  the  growing  period,  its 
adaptation  is  much  the  same  as  barley  only  a  little  below  it. 
For  continued  feeding  to  the  former,  a  mixture  of  oats  and 
barley  in  the  proportions  of  two  and  one  respectively,  by 
weight,  should  prove  satisfactory.  For  the  latter,  the  pro- 
portion of  speltz  may  be  larger.  Along  with  say  33  per  cent 
bran  by  weight  and  5  per  cent  oil  meal  or  cake,  it  will 
also  prove  very  suitable. 


242  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

For  cattle  that  are  being  fattened  it  has  not  been  mucn 
tested  in  this  country  but  should  be  nearly  equal  to  barley. 
It  may  constitute  at  least  half  the  grain  fed,  the  other  half 
being  corn,  or  wheat  when  the  prices  will  admit  of  feeding 
the  latter.  Five  to  20  per  cent  of  wheat  bran  especially  dur- 
ing the  early  feeding  will  improve  the  ration. 

For  cozvs  in  milk,  speltz  has  proved  a  useful  food,  but 
not  quite  equal  to  barley.  It  would  not  be  excessive  to 
make  one-half  the  grain  ration  speltz,  the  other  half  being 
ground  oats  or  bran  or  a  mixture  of  the  two.  Even  better 
than  the  above,  especially  for  cows  in  low  flesh,  is  a  mix- 
ture consisting  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  ground  speltz 
and  corn. 

For  sheep,  speltz  has  been  found  a  valuable  adjunct, 
whether  fed  to  lambs  at  the  weaning  season,  to  breed- 
ing flocks  or  for  fattening  purposes.  For  breeding  ewes, 
the  mixture  is  improved  by  adding  oats  in  any  propor- 
tion desired  or  by  adding  a  small  percentage  of  bran. 
The  tests  in  fattening  sheep  with  speltz  as  the  sole 
grain  food,  have  given  results  differing  materially.  It  will 
doubtless  be  found  that  much  better  results  will  follow  when 
corn,  wheat  or  rye  is  added  to  the  ration,  especially  the  for- 
mer. The  proportion  of  the  corn  should  increase  as  fatten- 
ing progresses. 

For  swine,  the  same  objection  applies  as  when  feeding 
oats.  Because  of  the  large,  proportion  of  the  hull,  ground 
speltz,  unsifted,  is  too  coarse  a  food  for  young  pigs  before 
or  shortly  after  the  weaning  season.  It  answers  better  for 
swine  that  are  growing  and  still  better  for  brood  sows  nurs- 
ing their  young.  As  a  fattening  food  for  swine,  it  is  about 
20  per  cent  less  valuable  than  corn.  The  aim  should 
to  add  corn  or  wheat  to  the  ration,  especially  the  former. 

For  horses,  young  or  old,  like  barley,  speltz  may  be  fed 
with  propriety,  but  as  in  the  case  of  barley,  the  aim  should 
be  to  make  oats  constitute  at  least  two  parts  of  the  ration. 
But  for  foals,  the  speltz  should  be  ground.  In  the  semi- 
arid  belt,  speltz  may  prove  a  cheaper  feed  than  oats. 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER-  SEEDS  243 

It  has  been  recommended  in  some  instances  to  feed 
speltz  with  oats.  The  mixture  may  frequently  be  obtained 
by  growing  the  two  together.  The  advantage  in  so  doing 
may  prove  very  decided.  Usually  by  growing  them  thus, 
the  yield  will  be  increased  and  on  lands  where  oats  are 
much  liable  to  lodge,  the  speltz  will  aid  in  sustaining  them. 

Field  beans. — The  common  field  bean  is  somewhat  ex- 
tensively grown  in  certain  sections  of  the  northern  states 
and  in  various  provinces  of  Canada.  It  is  grown  primarily 
as  food  for  man,  hence,  unless  the  beans  have  taken  injury 
during  the  harvesting  from  adverse  weather  or  subse- 
quently from  heating  in  storage,  they  are  too  valuable  to 
permit  of  their  being  fed  to  live  stock.  However,  since  they 
stain  readily  from  rain  during  the  harvesting  and  curing 
process,  and  since  the  injury  thus  sustained  greatly  depre- 
ciates the  market  value,  the  most  profitable  use  that  can  be 
made  of  such  beans  usually  is  to  feed  them  to  live  stock.  To 
sheep  and  horses  they  are  more  commonly  fed  unground 
but  are  ground  for  cattle  and  are  usually  cooked  for  swine 
and  poultry. 

To  cattle  of  any  kind  in  this  country  they  have 
been  so  little  fed  that  testimony  based  on  experience 
in  feeding  them  is  almost  entirely  wanting.  The  nutrients 
which  they  contain  give  them  a  high  feeding  value  for  pro- 
ducing growth  and  also  milk.  But  bean  meal  like  pea  meal, 
will  be  improved  for  feeding  by  adding  bran  to  lessen  its 
density  when  moistened  by  saliva.  It  may  also  be  necessary 
sometimes  to  introduce  the  meal  gradually  to  make  cattle 
take  kindly  to  it.  With  corn  meal  and  ground  oats  or  bran 
in  the  proportions  of  two,  one  and  two  parts  respectively, 
it  should  make  a  good  concentrated  food  for  calves.  For 
beef  cattle  the  mixture  may  be  bran  or  ground  oats  and  corn 
in  the  proportions  of  one,  one  and  three  parts  by  weight. 
For  cows  in  milk,  with  ordinary  fodders,  bran  meal  may 
form  as  much  as  33  to  50  per  cent  of  the  ration.  Equal 
parts  of  ground  beans,  ground  oats  and  ground  corn,  by 
weight,  should  make  a  very  suitable  grain  ration. 


244  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

Sheep  are  fond  of  beans  in  the  unground  form  and 
when  fed  with  suitable  grain  adjuncts,  they  make  an  excel- 
lent food  for  them.  Beans  and  oats  go  well  together  as 
grain  food  for  breeding  ewes,  but  when  the  fodder  is  legu- 
minous, the  proportion  of  beans  fed  should  be  small  or  the 
protein  in  the  ration  will  be  excessive.  To  sheep  that  are 
being  fattened,  corn  or  barley  and  beans  make  quick  and 
large  gains.  The  beans  may  form  from  25  to  50  per  cent  of 
the  grain  ration  according  to  the  conditions. 

For  growing  swine,  beans  make  an  excellent  ration, 
cooked  or  ground  and  soaked,  but  some  other  grain  as  corn 
or  barley  added,  improves  the  ration.  To  swine  that  are  be- 
ing fattened,  beans  and  corn  in  equal  parts  make  an  excel- 
lent food.  The  claim  that  beans  alone  will  fatten  swine  as 
quickly  and  satisfactorily  as  beans  and  corn,  has  been  dis- 
posed of  at  the  Michigan  experiment  station.  At  the  said 
station,  beans  and  corn  fed  in  equal  proportions  by  weight, 
gave  an  increase  of  50  per  cent  higher  than  beans  alone. 

To  horses,  beans  have  been  but  little  fed.  For  such  a 
use,  along  with  oats,  corn  or  barley,  and  especially  along 
with  the  latter,  they  should  furnish  an  excellent  food  for 
horses.  What  is  said  with  reference  to  the  value  of  horse 
beans  as  a  food  for  horses,  should  apply  about  equally  to 
common  beans  (see  p.  24).  Beans  that  have  heated  to  the 
extent  of  inducing  mould,  are  very  hurtful  not  only  to 
horses  but  to  all  kinds  of  stock. 

Soy  beans. — The  soy  bean  is  now  grown  as  a  source  of 
protein  in  several  of  the  central  and  southern  states,  espe- 
cially the  former.  The  states  highest  in  adaptation  include 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana  and 
Kentucky.  This  warm  weather  plant  is  not  much  grown  in 
the  North,  but  even  in  New  England  it  has  been  grown 
with  considerable  success  as  a  source  of  protein  for  the  silo, 
in  the  unthreshed  form.  In  the  northern  states,  the  Canada 
field  pea  will  usually  furnish  protein  more  cheaply  and 
surely,  and  the  same  is  true  of  clover  and  alfalfa  in  many 
sections,  but  the  amount  of  the  bulk  in  these  in  relation  to 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  245 

tfie  protein  may  render  them  insufficient  of  itself  as  a  source 
of  protein.  Soy  beans  yield  from,  say  12  to  20  bushels  an 
acre  under  average  conditions  in  states  suited  to  their 
growth,  hence  it  is  quite  feasible  in  these  to  grow  them  as  a 
source  of  protein.  The  mature  grain  is  only  fed  to  cattle 
in  the  ground  form,  except  when  fed  as  ensilage.  It  is  also 
ground  when  fed  to  swine  except  when  harvested  by  the 
swine  in  the  field,  which  is  sometimes  done,  but  it  is  not 
usual  to  grind  them  for  sheep  or  horses. 

For  fattening  cattle,  soy  bean  meal  though  not  much 
used,  may  be  so  used  as  a  part  of  the  grain  ration,  but  only 
as  a  moderate  portion,  owing  to  the  high  percentage  of  the 
oil  which  it  contains.  For  this  reason  it  should  be  fed  with 
a  prudent  caution  to  milch  cows.  But  it  has  been  found 
quite  satisfactory  as  a  source  of  protein  in  feeding  both  beef 
cattle  and  dairy  cows.  When  from  20  to  33  per  cent  of  the 
silage  is  composed  of  soy  beans  reasonably  well  matured, 
the  balance  being  corn  also  well  grown,  the  protein  in  the 
ration  will  probably  be  found  ample  for  cows  in  milk,  pro- 
viding the  fodder  is  alfalfa  or  clover.  It  would  furnish  an 
excellent  meal  adjunct,  at  least  as  good  as  linseed  meal  for 
calves  during  the  milk  period,  whether  fed  in  the  milk  or 
along  with  other  meal.  Much  of  what  is  said  about 
the  feeding  of  ground  flax  will  also  apply  to  the  feeding  of 
soy  bean  meal  (see  p.  249). 

For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened,  the  grain  should 
only  form  a  small  part  of  the  ration,  but  how  much  would 
depend,  first,  on  the  relative  value  of  the  beans  and,  second, 
on  the  protein  in  the  fodder.  In  the  absence  of  experi- 
ment, it  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  soy  bean  meal  should 
not  be  fed  to  sheep  in  larger  quantity  than  oil  meal  (see 
p.  277). 

For  szvine  the  meal  is  expensive,  too  expensive  in  the 
meantime  to  be  fed  in  competition  with  some  of  the  other 
sources  of  protein.  But  the  beans  may,  under  some  condi- 
tions, be  profitably  harvested  by  swine.  Before  turning  in 
the  swine,  the  beans  should  be  practically  mature.  When 


246  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

thus  gleaned,  corn  or  some  other  carbonaceous  food  should 
be  fed  along  with  the  beans. 

To  horses,  soy  beans  have  only  been  fed  in  a  limited 
way.  But  when  corn  is  the  principal  grain  fed,  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  soy  bean  seed  may  be  added.  Some  lo- 
calities favor  the  growing  of  soy  beans  so  much  more  than 
others,  that  the  wisdom  of  growing  these  as  a  source  of 
protein  for  any  kind  of  feeding  will  be  largely  dependent 
upon  the  cost  of  the  same. 

The  horse  bean. — The  horse  bean  ( View,  faba),  though 
much  grown  in  Great  Britain  and  also  in  the  more  moist  and 
temperate  areas  of  continental  Europe,  has  not  succeeded 
well  when  tried  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  except  in 
comparatively  limited  areas.  These  include  certain  areas  in 
proximity  to  the  Great  lakes,  especially  in  th£  more  north- 
erly sections  where  the  summers  are  reasonably  moist  and 
cool,  and  also  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  Oregon  to  Alaska. 
This  plant  is  a  great  yielder  of  protein,  hence  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  it  does  not  succeed  better  where  the  summer 
temperatures  are  warm.  It  furnishes  food  that  is  highly 
prized  for  stock  when  fed  in  proper  combinations.  It  is  al- 
ways fed  in  the  form  of  meal  to  cattle  except  when  fed  as 
ensilage,  usually  in  the  unground  form  to  sheep,  as  meal  or 
cooked  to  swine,  and  unground,  ground  or  boiled  or 
steamed  to  horses. 

For  cattle  this  crop  when  ground  furnishes  excel- 
lent food  for  young  cattle  when  fed  along  with  such  ground 
food  as  barley,  rye  or  corn,  the  beans  preponderating  in  the 
ration.  For  beef  cattle,  33  per  cent  or  even  less  will  usually 
prove  ample  in  the  grain  ration,  but  for  dairy  cows  with  or- 
dinary fodders  fully  50  per  cent  of  the  meal  ration  may  con- 
sist of  bean  meal.  The  best  method  by  far,  however,  of 
feeding  it  to  dairy  cows  is  in  the  form  of  silage  which  con- 
sists of  say  one  part  by  weight  of  the  entire  bean  crop  to 
two  parts  of  the  entire  corn  crop.  For  sheep,  what  was  said 
of  the  common  bean  will  also  apply  to  the  horse  bean  (see 
p.  244).  When  fed  to  swine  that  are  being  fattened,  50 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  247 

per  cent  or  more  of  the  ration  should  be  corn,  barley  or  rye 
meal.  As  the  name  would  indicate,  it  stands  high  in  favor 
as  a  food  for  horses.  It  has  been  claimed  that  as  a  part  of 
the  ration  it  puts  spirit  into  horses  subjected  to  violent  ex- 
ertion, as  for  instance,  horses  used  in  the  chase.  It  has  also 
been  used  as  a  grain  adjunct  and  even  as  the  principal  grain 
fed  in  fattening  horses.  It  has  peculiar  adaptation  for  be- 
ing fed  along  with  corn  to  horses  when  the  latter  is  freely 
fed.  For  fattening  horses,  the  combination  is  probably  un- 
rivaled. Wolfe  places  the  comparative  feeding  value  of 
corn,  horse  beans,  also  oats  as  4,  4.5  and  5. 

Cowpeas. — The  cowpea  is  the  great  soil  restorer  of 
the  southern  states.  It  may  be  grown  with  entire  success 
south  of  parallel  40  degrees  and  in  many  localities  with 
measurable  success  much  further  north.  While  it  is  likely 
that  it  will  be  much  grown  to  furnish  pasture  for  live  stock, 
and  also  hay  for  the  same,  it  would  seem  probable  that  the 
amount  of  grain  fed  will  continue  to  be  more  or  less  lim- 
ited, owing  first,  to  the  tendency  in  the  crop  to  ripen  un- 
evenly, and  second,  to  the  considerable  labor  in  handling  it 
because  of  peculiarities  of  growth  after  it  has  matured. 
Nevertheless,  it  will  furnish  excellent  food  for  live  stock 
where  it  can  be  devoted  to  such  a  use.  Generally  the  grain 
in  the  threshed  form  is  too  dear  to  admit  of  its  being  fed 
thus  with  profit.  It  is  usually  ground  when  fed  to  cattle, 
but  is  fed  in  the  unground  form  to  sheep.  To  swine  and 
horses  it  is  fed  ground  or  unground.  Owing  to  the  high 
protein  content  possessed  by  cowpeas,  they  furnish  a  suit- 
able concentrate  for  young  stock. 

For  cattle,  when  ground  and  fed  along  with  suitable 
adjuncts,  they  furnish  excellent  food.  The  meal,  like 
that  of  Canada  field  pea,  is  usually  somewhat  heavy  for 
being  fed  alone,  hence,  for  nearly  all  kinds  of  feeding  and 
especially  for  cattle,  it  is  improved  by  mixing  with  it 
ground  oats  or  wheat  bran.  Such  a  mixture,  containing  say 
50  per  cent  of  cowpea  meal  is  excellent  for  calves  and  dairy 
cows,  but  a  percentage  much  less  than  that  named  will 


248  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

prove  very  helpful.  For  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  cow- 
peas  and  corn  in  almost  any  proportions  will  answer  as  the 
concentrate  fed,  but  when  corn  forms  50  per  cent  of  the 
grain  ration,  more  rapid  increase  may  usually  be  looked  for 
than  if  it  should  form  a  less  proportion  of  the  same. 

Sheep,  doubtless,  may  be  fattened  on  this  grain  alone, 
just  as  they  may  be  fattened  on  the  Canada  field  pea  alone. 
The  peas  may  also  be  fed  thus  to  breeding  ewes.  Never- 
theless, for  the  latter  use,  the  addition  of  oats  will  improve 
the  ration  materially.  But  for  fattening  sheep,  corn  and 
cowpeas,  during  the  later  stages  of  fattening,  are  superior 
to  cowpeas  and  oats.  These  three  fed  together  in  equal 
proportions  by  weight,  should  furnish  an  excellent  food  for 
fattening  sheep. 

To  swine,  cowpeas  are  more  commonly  fed  than  to 
other  kinds  of  live  stock.  At  the  Alabama  experiment  sta- 
tion, located  at  Auburn,  it  was  found  that  cowpeas  alone 
called  for  481  pounds  to  make  100  pounds  of  increase,  corn 
alone,  487  pounds,  and  equal  parts  of  each,  433  pounds. 
The  peas  and  corn  may  be  fed  unground.  Rye  or  barley 
could  be  substituted  for  corn,  but  not  quite  so  satisfactorily. 
The  peas  ground  and  soaked  and  fed  with  skim  milk,  a  lim- 
ited proportion  of  corn  meal  being  in  the  ration,  make 
quick  growth.  Cowpeas  and  sweet  potatoes  also  feed  well 
together,  especially  when  fattening  swine. 

To  horses,  although  cowpeas  are  not  usually  fed 
because  of  relative  cost,  they  may  be  so  fed.  As  in 
the  case  of  soy  beans,  they  go  well  with  corn.  When  fed  as 
meal,  pea  meal  and  ground  oats  in  equal  proportions  go  well 
together.  The  oats  lighten  up  the  meal  in  the  sense  that 
they  render  it  more  porous. 

Vetches. — The  leading  varieties  of  vetches  grown  in 
the  United  States  are  known  as  common  winter  or  spring 
vetches,  also  the  sand  vetch,  which,  properly  speaking,  is  a 
winter  vetch.  The  distinction  between  winter  and  spring- 
vetches  is  not  very  sharply  defined.  The  highest  adaptation 


•    FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  249 

for  the  common  vetch  is  found  west  of  the  Cascade  m©un- 
tains  and  northward  from  California  to  -Alaska,  in  areas 
with  cool  summer  temperatures,  especially  northward  from 
the  Great  lakes,  and  in  the  maritime  provinces  of  Canada 
and  some  portions  of  the  New  England  states.  The  sand 
vetch  is  more  commonly  grown  on  light  soils  south  of  say 
40  degrees. 

Vetches  are  chiefly  grown  to  produce  pasture,  soiling 
food  or  hay,  but  in  some  instances  the  grain  is  the  chief  con- 
sideration. In  such  instances  they  are  chiefly  harvested  by 
sheep  or  swine  where  they  grew,  but  more  especially  by  the 
former,  as  then  much  of  the  vine  is  consumed  as  well  as  the 
grain.  When  sown  for  such  harvesting  by  sheep,  enough 
oats  should  be  sown  with  them  to  sustain  the  crop.  Such 
grazing  is  only  adapted  to  conditions  where  dry  weather 
prevails  during  the  harvest  season,  as  for  instance,  where 
irrigation  is  practised.  The  seed  separate  from  the  grain 
has  usually  too  high  a  market  value  for  being  fed  in  that 
form.  The  grain  has  much  the  same  feeding  value  as  peas 
(see  p.  236),  and  may  be  fed  in  much  the  same  way.  It  is 
particularly  valuable  as  a  concentrate  for  young  stock,  ow- 
ing to  its  high  protein  content. 

Flax. — In  limited  quantities,  flax  may  be  grown  with  a 
reasonable  measure  of  success  in  almost  every  state  in  the 
Union,  but  in  the  northwestern  states  and  provinces  of  Can- 
ada the  relative  adaptation  is  higher  for  it  than  elsewhere, 
and  in  these  areas  the  greater  portion  of  the  American  crop 
is  grown.  Because  of  the  abundance  of  the  oil  which  it  pro- 
duces, and  the  high  commercial  value  of  the  same,  flax  is 
more  commonly  fed  as  cake  or  meal  after  the  oil  has  been 
extracted,  and  for  the  further  reason  that  the  high  content 
of  the  oil  makes  it  too  rich  a  food  for  prolonged  feeding  in 
large  quantities.  Nevertheless,  there  are  conditions  in 
which  the  grain  may  be  fed  with  advantage  and  profit,  in 
limited  quantities,  whether  fed  directly  or  indirectly,  as  by 
grinding  it  with  other  foods. 


25O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

By  sowing  the  flax  with  the  grain  or  grains  with  which 
it  is  to  be  fed,  it  may  be  obtained  virtually  without  cost 
other  than  the,  seed  sown.  More  than  5  to  10  per  cent 
of  flax  in  the  grain  fed  would  usually  be  unnecessary,  and 
to  ascertain  how  much  seed  to  sow  to  furnish  this  amount, 
can  only  be  found  through  actual  experience  in  any  given 
locality.  When  flax  seed  is  thus  grown,  it  precludes  the 
necessity  for  purchasing  oil  cake.  The  favorable  influence 
on  digestion  of  a  small  quantity  of  flax  seed  in  the  ration, 
is  the  strong  argument  in  favor  of  feeding  it  thus.  But  it 
can  only  be  fed  in  limited  quantities,  otherwise  the  appetite 
will  be  gradually  lessened 

To  cattle,  when  thus  grown,  the  grain,  with  the  flax  in 
it,  is  ground  and  fed  for  fattening.  When  present  only  in 
limited  quantities,  the  presence  of  the  flax  in  the  grain  does 
not  seriously  interfere  with  successful  grinding  in  home 
farm  mills  as  would  be  the  case  with  flax  alone  because  of 
its  oily  character. 

Meal  similarly  prepared  may  also  be  fed  to  milch  cows. 
When  thus  fed,  the  flax  adds  protein  to  the  ration  and  aids 
digestion,  and  is  not  present  in  sufficient  quantities  to  af- 
fect adversely  the  quality  of  the  butter. 

Flax  seed  in  the  unground  form  has  been  used  more 
for  feeding  young  calves  during  the  milk  period  when  fed 
skim  milk  than  for  any  other  class  of  cattle.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  making  it  into  a  gruel  by  soaking  and  boiling  and 
adding  to  the  skim  milk  while  hot.  The  object  of  heating 
is  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  milk.  Though  excellent 
for  such  a  use,  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  add  heat  to  the  milk. 
now  that  newly  separated  milk  is  coming  to  be  much  used 
for  feeding  calves.  The  seed  in  the  ground  form,  usually 
spoken  of  as  linseed  and  fed  with  the  milk  or  otherwise, 
serves  the  purpose  equally  well  except  in  instances  in  which 
the  temperature  of  the  milk  will  be  improved  by  raising  it. 
The  quantity  fed,  a  very  small  amount  at  first,  may  be 
gauged  by  the  condition  of  the  voidings.  Fed  in  excess, 
the  bowels  become  too  lax. 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  251 

For  sheep,  flax  when  grown  with  oats  in  suitable  quan- 
tity, makes  an  excellent  food  for  breeding  ewes,  in  the  un- 
ground  form,  the  amount  of  grain  fed  being  not  more  than 
one  pound  daily  until  after  lambing.  Grown  with  oats  and 
barley,  or  oats,  barley  and  wheat,  an  excellent  mixture  is 
furnished  for  fattening  sheep,  without  adding  any  other 
grain.  The  gruel  mixture  and  the  linseed  also  are  particu- 
larly excellent  for  lambs  that  are  hand-fed  as  they  can  prob- 
ably utilize  much  fat  in  the  ration. 

For  swine,  a  small  amount  ground  with  a  suitable  grain 
mixture,  will  improve  the  ration  but  the  amount  should  be 
very  small  or  the  appetite  will  be  lessened. 

For  horses,  a  small  quantity  of  the  ground  flax  may  be 
added  to  the  food  to  prevent  constipation  but  wheat  bran  is 
usually  preferred  for  such  a  purpose.  In  limited  quantity, 
it  may  also  be  thus  used  in  feeding  young  horses  and  brood 
mares  but  oil  cake  is  more  suitable. 

Cotton  seed. — Nearly  all  the  cotton  grown  in  the 
United  States  is  produced  in  the  Gulf  states  and  in  the 
states  adjacent  to  them.  It  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  crop 
grown  in  the  South.  Subsequently  to  its  introduction  into 
the  United  States,  cotton  was  grown  for  several  decades 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  producing  fibre  to  be  used  in  making 
cloth.  Previously  to  1860,  it  is  said  that  nearly  all  the  seed 
was  wasted.  It  was  an  enormous  waste,  as  the  cotton  plant 
produces  about  two  pounds  of  seed  for  each  pound  of  fibre. 
Since  the  great  value  of  the  seed  in  furnishing  food  for  live 
stock  and  for  fertilization  have  come  to  be  known  and  ap- 
preciated, virtually  all  the  seed  grown  is  fed  to  live  stock, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  meal  or  cake  after  the  oil  has  been 
extracted,  but  it  is  also  fed  to  some  extent  while  yet  un- 
ground,  in  the  natural  condition  or  steamed,  boiled 
roasted. 

For  cattle,  cotton  seed  furnishes  an  excellent  concen- 
trate. In  the  production  of  beef,  no  grain  grown  in  the 
United  States  is  equal  to  cotton  seed,  pound  for  pound,  in 
producing  value.  When  fed  in  the  raw  or  natural  form  to 


252  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

cattle  that  are  being  fattened  along  with  Bermuda  hay,  it 
has  produced  meat  even  more  cheaply  than  when  fed  as 
meal,  but  larger  gains  have  been  obtained  from  feeding  it 
steamed,  and  also  from  feeding  in  some  combinations  along 
with  other  concentrates.  The  comparative  profit,  however, 
from  feeding  cotton  seed  as  compared  with  cottonseed 
meal,  will  depend  on  the  relative  prices  of  the  two.  Being 
an  exceedingly  concentrated  food,  ordinarily  not  more  than 
four  to  five  pounds  of  the  daily  ration  are  composed  of  cot- 
ton seed,  the  other  portion  of  the  grain  or  meal  being  made 
up  from  some  other  concentrate,  but  in  some  instances,  in 
the  cotton  states,  more  than  10  pounds  of  the  seed  are  fed 
daily.  Cattle  have  been  successfully  fattened  on  cotton  seed 
and  cotton  seed  hulls  without  hay.  Excellent  results  follow 
the  feeding  of  raw  cotton  seed,  a  moderate  amount  of  corn, 
corn  silage  and  Bermuda  hay. 

For  cozvs  in  milk,  cotton  seed  has  been  found  even 
more  profitable  than  when  fed  for  meat,  owing,  doubtless  to 
its  high  protein  content.  It  is  more  commonly  fed  to  dairy 
cows  in  the  form  of  meal,  but  in  instances  not  a  few,  is  fed 
raw  or  steamed.  At  the  Mississippi  experiment  station, 
butter  made  by  feeding  boiled  cotton  seed,  Bermuda  hay 
and  silage  stood  first  in  cheapness  of  production,  that  from 
raw  cotton  seed  and  the  same  adjuncts  came  second  and 
that  made  from  cottonseed  meal  and  these  adjuncts  was 
third.  Here  also,  relative  profit  from  feeding  the  seed  and 
meal  will  depend  uppn  relative  values.  The  claim  has  been 
made,  and  it  is  probably  correct,  that  no  cheaper  feed  for 
producing  milk  can  be  fed  in  the  southern  states.  For  milk 
production  as  much  as  10  pounds  per  day  per  cow  have  in 
some  instances  been  fed,  but  the  aim  should  be  rather  to 
feed  not  more  than  half  the  quantity  named  in  prolonged 
feeding  and  to  add  some  other  concentrate,  preferably  one 
grown  in  the  South.  It  would  seem  probable  that  in  the  fu- 
ture, cotton  seed  will  be  more  and  more  fed  as  meal  rather 
than  as  seed,  as  the  value  of  the  oil  pressed  from  seed  is 
greater  for  some  other  uses  than  as  food  for  stock. 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  253 

For  calves,  cotton  seed  is  usually  fed  in  the  form  of 
meal.  As  they  become  more  advanced  in  age,  however,  it 
may  be  fed  to  them  raw  or  steamed,  and  thus  also  it  may  be 
used  with  advantage  as  a  source  of  protein  in  growing 
young  cattle,  more  especially  when  the  fodder  is  made  up 
largely  of  corn  stalks  and  the  non-saccharine  sorghums. 

To  shevp,  cotton  seed  in  the  raw  form  is  fed  freely 
when  fattening  them  in  proximity  to  the  mills,  and  is  a 
good  fattening  food  fed  along  with  Bermuda  or  other  hay, 
or  even  along  with  the  hulls  in  lieu  of  roughage  feeding 
three  to  four  pounds  of  hulls  to  one  pound  of  the  seed.  It 
has  not  been  much  fed  to  breeding  ewes,  but  doubtless  it 
would  be  perfectly  legitimate  to  feed  it  to  them  in  moderate 
quantities. 

To  swine,  it  is  not  common  to  feed  cotton  seed  in  any 
form,  but  when  so  fed  it  is  usually  in  the  form  of  meal.  In 
the  unground  form  it  is  not  well  suited  to  the  digestion  of 
swine,  even  though  it  should  not  injure  them,  as  the  meal 
does  in  prolonged  feeding  (see  p.  278).  At  the  Texas  ex- 
periment station,  even  when  fed  boiled,  the  mortality  of  the 
animals  eating  it  was  25  per  cent. 

To  horses,  neither  cotton  seed  nor  cottonseed  meal 
have  been  much  fed.  The  meal  has  been  fed  with  safety 
to  working  horses  to  the  extent  of  one  to  two  pounds  a  day, 
and  it  would  seem  reasonable  to  suppose  that  at  least  as 
large  amounts  of  the  raw  seed  could  be  fed  without  hazard. 

Sunflower  seed. — The  sunflower  calls  for  a  climate 
somewhat  similar  to  that  required  by  corn.  This  means 
that  it  can  be  grown  successfully  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  that  are  tillable,  and  also  in  several  of  the 
provinces  of  Canada.  The  yields  from  reasonably  good 
crops  are  about  2,000  pounds  per  acre.  The  growing  of  the 
plant  calls  for  about  the  same  amount  of  labor  as  the  grow- 
ing of  a  crop  of  corn,  and  the  yield  of  the  grain  is  not  far 
different.  The  seed  is  also  possessed  of  high  feeding  value. 
Notwithstanding,  the  growing  of  sunflowers  as  food  for 


254  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

farm  animals,  unless  it  be  for  poultry,  is  not  likely  to  be- 
come popular  in  the  near  future,  owing,  first,  to  the  hand  la- 
bor required  in  harvesting  the  crop,  and  second,  to  the  little 
food  value  possessed  by  the  stalks. 

Sunflower  seed  may  be  fed  in  the  unground  form  to 
sheep,  swine,  horses  and  poultry.  When  fed  to  cattle 
they  are  commonly  ground,  except  when  fed  as  ensilage. 
This  is  probably  the  most  popular  way  of  feeding  them  to 
cattle.  When  so  fed,  it  is  common  to  ensile  only  the  heads 
and  a  small  portion  of  the  stalk  which  supports  them. 
When  thus  ensiled  with  corn  and  horse  beans,  an  excellent 
ration  is  obtained  for  feeding  milch  cows.  When  fed  to 
cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  horses,  only  a  limited  percentage  of 
the  grain  ration  should  be  sunflower  seed,  because  of  the 
high  content  of  oil  which  they  contain.  Even  when  fed  to 
fowls,  it  should  be  along  with  other  grain.  Cake  made  from 
sunflowers  is  about  as  valuable  as  oil  cake. 

Sweet  sorghum  seed. — Sorghum  may  be  grown  for 
pasture,  soiling  food,  fodder,  or  for  making  syrup,  in  nearly 
all  localities  where  corn  will  mature  paying  crops  of  the 
grain.  Sorghum  syrup  has  been  made  in  considerable  quan- 
tities as  far  north  as  southern  Minnesota.  This  crop  is  sel- 
dom grown  primarily  for  the  seed  obtained  from  it,  but 
when  grown  to  furnish  syrup,  the  seed  also  is  an  important 
consideration.  Yields  approximating  30  bushels  per  acre 
are  frequently  obtained  and  in  some  instances  considerably 
more  than  the  quantity  named.  As  with  Kafir  corn  and  in- 
deed with  all  the  seeds  of  the  sorghurn  family,  much  care  is 
necessary  to  prevent  them  from  heating  to  their  injury  as 
food  when  stored. 

Nearly  all  of  what  is  said  with  reference  to  the  feeding 
of  Kafir  corn  seed  will  also  apply  to  the  feeding  of  sor- 
ghum seed  (see  p.  255).  The  composition  of  the  two  is  very 
similar.  This  means  that  sorghum  seed  may,  under  certain 
conditions,  be  fed  with  advantage  to  beef  and  dairy  cattle, 
to  sheep,  swine,  horses  and  poultry.  For  cattle  and  swine 
it  is  decidedly  preferable  to  feed  the  seed  as  meal,  but  to 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  255 

sheep  and  horses  there  is  probably  no  better  way  of  feeding 
it  than  by  simply  chopping  off  the  heads  from  the  sheaves 
and  feeding  them  unthreshed.  In  this  form,  under  proper 
conditions  of  storage,  this  seed  is  but  little  liable  to  ferment. 
Well  preserved  seed  when  threshed,  will  usually  command 
so  high  a  price  for  planting  that  it  cannot  be  profitably  used 
for  feeding  in  a  large  way  to  live  stock. 

Kafir  corn  seed. — Kafir  corn  will  successfully  with- 
stand much  more  drought  than  corn  and  considerably  more 
than  sorghum,  but  it  cannot  withstand  temperatures  so  low 
as  some  varieties  of  these  plants.  It  has  special  adaptation, 
therefore,  for  certain  areas  of  the  semi-arid  belt  from  say 
parallel  40  degrees  southward.  In  these  it  produces  more 
grain  and  fodder  per  acre  than  either  corn  or  sorghum.  At 
the  Kansas  experiment  station  located  at  Manhattan,  it  has 
produced  about  25  per  cent  more  grain  than  corn.  Where, 
however,  the  yields  of  corn  are  equal  to  or  greater  than 
those  of  Kafir  corn  seed,  the  former  should  be  grown  in 
preference,  as  it  is  not  only  somewhat  better  relished  but 
has  a  higher  feeding  value.  Except  when  fed  to  sheep  and 
fowls,  Kafir  corn  is  usually  ground  before  feeding  it. 

For  cattle,  Kafir  corn  has  not  been  found  quite  equal  to 
corn.  For  fattening  cattle,  the  feeding  of  corn  is  about  6 
per  cent  greater.  The  difference  in  favor  of  corn  for  milk 
production  is  probably  even  more.  Cattle  tire  more  quickly 
of  Kafir  corn  than  of  corn. 

Twenty  to  30  per  cent  of  soy  bean  meal  greatly  im- 
proves the  Kafir  corn  for  making  beef  and  a  still  larger  per- 
centage further  improves  it  for  milk  production  when  the 
fodder  is  carbonaceous  in  character.  Wheat  bran  also  is 
well  suited  for  being  fed  to.  cattle  with  this  meal,  as  it  not 
only  increases  the  protein  content,  but  adds  to  the  bulk.  It 
should  be  fed  somewhat  sparingly  to  calves  except  when 
they  are  being  fattened,  and  to  young  cattle  in  process  of 
development. 

For  fattening  sheep,  Kafir  corn  has  proved  at  least 
fairly  satisfactory  It  is  fed  to  them  in  the  unground  form 


256  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

and  very  frequently  without  separating  the  seed  from  the 
heads.  These  are  removed  from  the  stems  and  run  through 
a  cutting  box  which  prepares  them  for  being  fed  in  a  very 
suitable  form.  In  other  instances  the  seed  is  fed  directly 
and  unmixed,  but  a  small  percentage  of  oats  a  Jed  im- 
proves the  grain  ration.  When  fed  to  breeding  ewes,  the 
percentage  of  oats  should  be  large,  even  when  the  fodder 
consists  of  alfalfa. 

For  swine,  Kafir  corn,  finely  ground  and  soaked,  has 
proved  fairly  satisfactory  when  fed  to  swine  that  were  being 
fattened.  It  was  not  equal  to  corn,  however.  Swine  tire 
of  it  more  quickly  and  it  has  more  of  a  tendency  to  produce 
constipation.  When  from  20  to  33  per  cent  of  the  grain 
mixture  is  soy  bean  meal,  Kafir  corn  is  not  much  behind 
corn  similarly  fed  in  fattening  swine.  When  fed  to  sows 
suckling  their  young,  from  30  to  50  per  cent  of  soy  bean 
meal  will  furnish  a  suitable  ration.  The  same  is  true  when 
not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  meal  is  composed  of  shorts. 
^When  fed  along  with  skim  milk  to  young  swine  before  or 
after  the  weaning  period,  the  development  should  be  satis- 
factory, but  it  will  be  even  more  so  if  wheat  middlings  are 
added. 

To  horses,  the  few  trials  -made  in  feeding  Kafir  corn 
have  shown  that  it  may  be  so  fed  with  safety  and  profit 
under  certain  conditions,  especially  to  horses  at  work. 
It  is  frequently  fed  while  yet  unthreshed,  by  simply  cutting 
off  the  heads  of  the  sheaves  and  feeding  the  heads.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  better  results  will  be  obtained  from 
first  grinding  the  seed.  What  has  been  said  about  feeding 
corn  in  conjunction  with  other  grains,  will  also  apply  in  the 
main  to  Kafir  corn  seed.  It  is  relished  at  least  fairly  well 
by  horses. 

Other  non-saccharine  sorghum  seeds. — Besides  Kafir 
corn  (see  p.  255),  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  known  as 
Jerusalem  corn,  Milo  maize  and  Durra,  are  grown  to  some 
extent  and  in  some  instances  largely  if  not  chiefly  for  the 
grain  obtained  from  them.  They  are  grown  sectionally  as 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  257 

it  were,  and  mainly  in  limited  areas  and  in  states  more  or 
less  centrally  located  west  of  the' Mississippi  river.  As  a 
rule  these  have  not  proved  equal  to  Kafir  corn  in  yields  of 
seed,  but  to  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  Nor  has  the 
fodder  as  a  rule  proved  equal  to  that  obtained  from 
Kafir  corn  or  sorghum.  Where  corn  grows  in  fine  form, 
it  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  it  can  be  more  profitably 
grown  to  furnish  food  for  live  stock  than  any  of  these. 

The  seed  of  each  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  has 
about  the  same  feeding  value  as  that  of  Kafir  corn.  This 
means  that  none  of  them  are  quite  equal  to  corn  for  general 
feeding,  although  they  may  exceed  it  in  some  special  line  or 
lines  of  the  same.  It  means  also  that  they  are  better 
adapted  relatively  for  fattening  than  for  promoting  growth 
in  young  animals.  As  in  the  case  of  Kafir  corn,  these 
should  ordinarily  be  ground  when  fed  to  cattle  and  swine, 
but  may  usually  be  fed  with  more  advantage  to  sheep, 
horses  and  fowls  by  feeding  them  while  yet  on  the  un- 
threshed  heads,  or  at  least  in  the  unground  form. 

Corn  or  maize. — Indian  corn  or  maize  is  unquestion- 
ably the  most  important  single  food  plant  grown  in  the 
United  States  to  provide  sustenance  for  domestic  animals. 
In  localities  where  it  can  be  successfully  grown,  it  usuallv 
furnishes  more  nutrients  per  acre  than  can  be  obtained  from 
any  other  plant  for  the  labor  involved,  and  this  holds  true 
of  it  even  in  many  instances  where  it  is  not  considered  prof- 
itable to  grow  it  primarily  to  produce  grain.  It  is  not  so 
exhaustive  to  the  soil  as  many  other  plants  and  no  other 
crop  can  be  used  to  better  purpose  as  an  aid  in  cleaning  the 
land,  when  the  labor  involved  is  considered. 

While  corn  can  be  grown  with  more  or  less  profit  in 
every  state  in  the  Union,  the  greatest  corn  growing  states 
are  those  embraced  in  the  Mississippi  basin.  Although  in 
some  of  its  varieties  it  may  be  matured  in  90  days  from  the 
date  of  planting,  it  is  not  usually  grown  to  a  very  large  ex- 
tent primarily  for  the  grain,  unless  in  areas  that  are  free 


258  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

from  frost  for  120  days.  As  a  fodder  crop,  its  growth  has 
been  pushed  far  northward  during  recent  years. 

Corn  fed  as  grain  is  preeminently  a  fattening  food  for 
all  kinds  of  domestic  animals.  In  this  respect,  it  is  without 
a  rival.  As  shown  in  the  table,  it  is  essentially  a  carbo- 
naceous food,  its  leading  characteristic  being  the  large 
amount  of  starchy  matter  which  it  contains.  It  is  low  in 
protein  and  quite  low  in  ash.  It  is  a  heat-producing  food 
and  quite  low  in  those  materials  that  furnish  muscle  and 
bone.  It  should  always  be  fed,  therefore,  with  a  prudent 
moderation  to  young  animals,  to  animals  at  work  and  to 
those  producing  milk,  and  in  conjunction  with  foods  rich  in 
protein.  It  is  nearly  all  digestible,  is  much  relished  by  an- 
imals, and  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  of  cereals,  even  for 
prolonged  feeding,  providing  it  is  fed  with  judgment. 

The  number  of  varieties  of  corn  is  in  a  sense  without 
limit.  These  are  divided  into  the  two  classes  known  as 
common  and  sweet.  The  sweet  varieties  are  richer  in  al- 
buminoids and  fat,  but  they  do  not  usually  yield  as  much, 
as  a  rule,  as  the  common  varieties.  The  latter  are  sub- 
divided into  what  are  termed  flint  and  dent  varieties.  The 
flint  varieties  are  characterized  by  the  flinty  hardness  of  the 
grain  and  the  dent  varieties  by  an  indentation  on  the  outer 
end  of  the  kernels.  The  flint  varieties  are  smaller  and  hard- 
ier, and  are,  therefore,  better  adapted  relatively  to  condi- 
tions with  seasons  too  short  for  producing  the  dent  vari- 
eties with  equal  profit.  There  is  no  marked  difference  in 
the  chemical  analysis  of  the  common  sorts  of  corn  based  on 
the  terms  fliht  and  dent.  The  nutrients  do  not  seem  to  be 
materially  influenced  by  color  nor  by  latitude  and  longitude. 

Corn  is  fed  as  grain  in  various  ways.  More  commonly 
it  is  fed  after  removal  from  the  cob  when  it  is  spoken  of  as 
"shelled"  corn  or  simply  corn,  but  frequently  it  is  fed  on  the 
cob  after  the  husk  has  been  removed  when  it  is  known  as 
"ear"  corn.  Sometimes  the  whole  crop  is  put  into  the  silo 
and  fed  as  "silage,"  at  other  times  it  is  fed  unhusked  from 
the  shock  when  it  is  known  as  "shock"  or  "fodder"  corn. 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  259 

In  some  instances  the  ears  are  broken  off  and  fed  without 
husking  when  it  is  designated  "snapped"  corn.  The  stalks, 
with  the  ears  removed,  are  known  as  "stover."  When  these 
are  torn  into  strips  by  a  suitable  machine,  the  product  is 
called  "shredded"  corn.  The  discussion  at  this  time  relates 
primarily  to  the  grain. 

To  young  animals,  corn  is  usually  fed  cracked  or 
ground.  By  "cracked"  is  meant  broken  up  into  coarse 
particles  that  they  may  masticate  it  more  easily.  In  some 
instances,  the  corn  and  cob  are  ground  together  before  be- 
ing fed,  the  product  being  spoken  of  as  corn  and  cob  meal. 
When  prepared  thus,  it  should  be  finely  ground,  as  when  the 
particles  are  coarse,  they  are  not  easily  digested.  When 
properly  prepared,  corn  and  cob  meal  has  about  the  same 
feeding  value  as  corn  meal,  notwithstanding  the  small 
amount  of  nutrients  in  the  cob.  The  result  is  owing  prob- 
ably to  the  more  easily  penetrable  character  of  the  mass  in 
the  stomach  when  fed  directly.  When  fed  to  cattle  that  are 
being  fattened,  corn  is  given  ground  or  unground,  soaked 
or  unsoaked,  as  snapped  corn  and  also  as  shock  corn.  It  is 
usually  given  to  cows  in  the  form  of  meal.  It  is  more  com- 
monly fed  to  sheep  shelled  and  unground,  but  may  be  fed, 
in  part  at  least,  as  ear  corn  or  as  shock  corn.  It  is  usually 
fed  to  swine  in  the  shelled  or  ear  form  and  unground.  In 
some  instances  it  is  first  soaked.  For  young  swine  and 
sows  that  are  nursing  their  young,  it  is  made  into  meal  and 
the  meal  is  soaked.  To  horses  it  is  more  commonly  fed  in 
the  shelled  form. 

The  degree  of  the  moisture  in  corn  has  a  material  in- 
fluence on  its  feeding  value.  In  new  corn  the  moisture  con- 
tent varies  from  20  to  25  per  cent.  In  old  corn,  thoroughly 
air  dried,  it  is  about  12  per  cent.  It  loses  moisture  slowly, 
hence  the  necessity  for  great  care  in  storing,  or  it  will 
mould.  In  such  a  condition  its  value  as  food  is  greatly  im- 
paired. If  fed  in  large  or  even  in  moderate  quantities  it  is 
positively  dangerous. 


260  FEEDING  FARM   ANIMALS 

To  calves  and  young  cattle,  corn  must  be  fed  with  some 
reserve,  owing  to  its  carbonaceous  character,  unless  when 
they  are  to  be  fattened.  It  may  then  be  made  the  principal, 
almost  the  sole  grain  food  fed,  otherwise  it  should  not  as  a 
rule  form  more  than  .one-third  to  one-half  the  grain  fed,  the 
balance  being  preferably  oats  and  bran.  The  latter  quan- 
tity is  only  admissible  when  fed  along  with  legumes  or 
what  is  better,  with  these  and  field  roots. 

For  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  corn  is  par  excel- 
lence the  food.  It  is  not  only  much  relished  but  it  is  much 
laden  with  starch,  well  calculated  to  fill  the  tissues  of  the 
body  with  fat.  It  may  be  used  as  the  sole  grain  food-  or  as 
any  part  of  it,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  other  food  fac- 
tors. In  the  corn  belt,  it  has  been  much  used  as  the  sole  ra- 
tion, the  stalks  supplying  the  roughage,  but  this  method  is 
only  admissible  when  the  prices  of  grain  rule  low,  as  it  is 
not  a  balanced  food.  It  is  fed  to  such  cattle  as  corn  meal, 
corn  and  cob  meal,  the  ears  snapped,  as  shock  corn  and 
sometimes  soaked.  When  fed  with  clover  or  alfalfa,  corn 
may  legitimately  form  75  to  90  per  cent  of  the  concentrated 
food,  the  balance  being  some  food  rich  in  protein,  as  cotton- 
seed meal,  oil  cake,  bran  or  gluten  meal.  When  the  grain  is 
fed  whole,  swine  are  made  to  glean  amid  the  droppings  to 
consume  the  corn  that  has  escaped  being  digested. 

For  cozvs  in  milk,  corn  will  easily  maintain  its  position 
as  the  basic  ration,  in  localities  where  it  grows  readily.  It 
can  be  produced  cheaply,  and  in  the  form  of  silage  furnishes 
the  necessary  succulence.  More  commonly  the  grain  is  fed 
to  cows  in  the  form  of  corn  meal  or  corn  and  cob  meal,  but 
sometimes  it  is  fed  as  shock  corn,  more  especially  when  the 
fodder  is  not  coarse.  When  thus  fed,  it  is  usually  necessary 
to  add  more  grain,  as  in  the  case  of  feeding  silage.  It  is  sel- 
dom wise  to  make  corn  comprise  more  than  50  per  cent  of 
the  grain  fed,  even  when  a  legume  is  used  as  fodder. 

For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened,  corn  is  equally  as 
good  as  for  fattening  cattle.  For  winter  lambs,  fed  as  meal 
or  cracked,  along  with  20  per  cent  of  oil  meal,  the  gains 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  261 

should  be  satisfactory  when  the  milk  supply  from  the  dams 
is  also  liberal.  For  weaned  lambs  and  mature  sheep  that 
are  being  fattened,  it  may  be  fed  unground  as  the  sole  grain 
ration  for  short  periods  of  feeding,  the  fodder  being  legu- 
minous, but  when  from  10  to  25  per  cent  of  the  grain  is  a 
protein  food,  the  results  are  usually  more  satisfactory.  For 
breeding  ewes,  the  corn  should  not  be  more  than  50  per  cent 
of  the  concentrate  fed,  and  usually  not  more  than  25  per 
cent. 

For  swine  that  are  being  fattened,  corn  alone  answers 
well.  It  is  about  as  profitable  fed  as  shelled  or  in  the  cob, 
as  in  the  form  of  meal.  If  so  hard  as  to  injure  the  mouths 
of  the  animals,  it  should  be  soaked  for  18  to  24  hours.  For 
brood  sows,  it  may  profitably  form  33  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
grain  fed,  the  other  meal  having  more  of  protein  in  it.  In 
such  instances,  it  is  fed  as  meal,  after  having  been  soaked, 
and  is  thus  prepared  also  for  unweaned  pigs.  To  these  it 
should  seldom  form  more  than  33  per  cent  of  the  meal,  the 
other  portion  being  preferably  wheat  middlings.  To  grow- 
ing pigs  on  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture,  it  may  furnish  50  to 
loo  per  cent  of  the  grain  fed. 

For  horses,  corn  is  not  so  good  a  food  as  oats,  when 
fed  as  the  sole  food.  It  is  not  so  good  for  building  muscu- 
lar tissue  or  in  making  bone  in  young  horses,  or  in  sustain- 
ing muscular  energy  in  horses  at  work.  It  fattens  the  ani- 
mals more  than  oats,  as  one  result  of  which  they  sweat  more 
readily,  and  yet  corn  may  be  fed  as  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  grain  ration,  especially  to  horses  at  work,  with 
both  economy  and  profit.  To  these  it  may  be  fed  so  as  to 
form  from  25  to  50  per  cent  of  the  grain,  according  to  the 
season  and  to  the  protein  in  the  other  food.  Oats  go  well 
with  corn.  A  little  wheat  bran  added  to  corn  meal  is  a  ma- 
terial aid  to  the  digesting  of  corn.  Corn  and  cob  meal  is 
better  than  corn  meal  fed  without  admixture.  Corn  should 
seldom  form  more  than  33  per  cent  of  the  grain  food  fed  to 


262  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

foals,  young  horses  or  brood  mares  that  are  pregnant  or 
while  nursing  their  foals,  because  of  its  low  protein  and  ash 
content. 

Broom  corn  seed. — The  seed  of  broom  corn  has  fre- 
quently been  wasted  under  the  impression  that  it  was  not 
possessed  of  any  considerable  feeding  value.  This  view 
may  rest  upon  the  fact  that  broom  corn  may  be  most  prof- 
itably harvested  when  a  little  short  of  maturity.  Neverthe- 
less, under  such  conditions,  the  value  of  the  seed  is  consid- 
erable, since  it  is  usually  allowed  to  reach  the  dough  stage 
before  it  is  harvested,  and  in  some  instances  to  go  beyond  it. 
Its  feeding  value  is,  of  course,  much  affected  by  the  degree 
of  the  maturity  when  harvested,  but  under  almost  any  con- 
ditions, the  value  of  the  seed  for  feeding  is  much  more  than 
the  cost  involved  in  it.  Where  the  seed  is  allowed  to  mature 
before  the  brush  is  cut,  as  much  as  a  ton  is  frequently  ob- 
tained per  acre.  As  the  feeding  value  is  much  the  same  as 
that  of  Kafir  corn,  food  from  such  a  source  should  not  be 
underrated. 

In  some  instances  it  has  been  reported  that  the  seed  not 
fully  matured  has  been  drawn  into  a  pasture  as  soon  as  ob- 
tained, where  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  were  allowed 
to  eat  of  it  at  will,  except  that  for  a  few  days  at  the  first, 
they  were  accustomed  to  it  gradually  by  allowing  them  to 
take  increasing  quantities  from  day  to  day.  The  wisdom  of 
feeding  it  thus  is  to  be  questioned,  as  under  such  condi- 
tions, unnecessarily  large  quantities  will  be  consumed.  It 
may  be  fed  much  the  same  as  Kafir  corn  (see  p.  255),  re- 
membering that,  as  the  immaturity  in  the  seed  is  increased, 
the  relative  quantity  fed  should  also  be  increased.  There  is 
probably  no  way  in  which  immature  seed  may  be  fed  more 
profitably  than  by  feeding  it  to  sheep  or  fowls  in  the  un- 
ground  form.  Much  broom  corn  seed  is  lost  by  throwing  it 
in  heaps  and  allowing  it  to  ferment,  a  result  that  will 
quickly  follow  when  it  is  treated  thus. 

Millet  seed. — Millet  may  be  grown  in  many  states  and 
provinces  of  Canada,  but  the  prairie  states  of  the  northwest 


FOOD  FROM  CEREALS  AND  OTHER  SEEDS  263 

in  this  country,  and  of  the  west  in  Canada,  have  highest 
adaptation  for  it.  In  these  areas,  it  may  frequently  be 
grown  with  much  appropriateness  to  furnish  not  only  hay- 
but  also  grain  for  live  stock  in  the  seed  which  it  matures. 
Since  it  grows  best  in  warm  weather  and  will  mature  in 
about  75  days,  according  to  the  variety,  it  may  furnish  a 
crop  of  seed  on  land  where  crops  sown  earlier  may  have 
failed,  or  where  early  spring  sowing  was  not  practicable  be- 
cause of  excessive  moisture.  Yields  of  not  less  than  30 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  and  weighing  48  to  56  pounds  per 
bushel  are  easily  obtainable  from  such  lands.  As  the  com- 
position of  millet  is  much  like  that  of  oats,  and  as  it  has  but 
little  hull,  its  feeding  value  for  live  stock,  especially  where 
corn  is  not  successfully  grown  for  the  grain,  will  be  at  once 
apparent.  Owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  grain,  it  is  fed  only 
in  the  ground  form,  except  when  fed  to  sheep  and  fowls. 

For  calves  and  young  cattle,  ground  millet  furnishes  a 
suitable  concentrate.  More  especially  when  fed  in  conjunc- 
tion w'ith  oats,  millet  meal  should  be  quite  suitable  for 
young  calves,  since  the  proportion  of  hull  is  small.  Along 
with  oats,  say  in  equal  parts  by  weight,  calves  may  be  given 
about  all  of  the  mixture  that  they  will  take  during  the  milk 

For  cattle  being  fattened,  ground  millet  is  a  useful 
food  when  it  forms  from  33  to  50  per  cent,  according  to  the 
stage  of  the  fattening,  less  being  fed  as  the  season  advances. 
The  other  factor  is  preferably  corn,  but  may  be  barley.  Mil- 
let and  wheat  may  also  be  similarly  fed. 

For  con's  in  milk,  ground  millet  may  profitably  form 
any  portion  of  the  grain  ration  up  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
grain  fed,  should  occasion  require  it.  Ground  oats  and 
wheat,  barley,  rye  or  corn,  in  equal  parts  by  weight,  may  ap- 
propriately furnish  the  other  portion. 

To  sheep,  millet  seed  furnishes  suitable  food.  More 
commonly  it  is  fed  to  them  unground.  It  may  be  fed  alone, 
but  oats  mixed  with  it,  add  to  the  bulk  and  porosity  of  the 


264  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

mass,  and  so  far  as  they  do,  improve  it  for  ordinary  fatten- 
ing. For  fattening  sheep,  it  blends  well  with  corn,  about 
equal  parts  being  used,  but  may  also  be  fed  with  other  ce- 
reals, as  wheat,  barley  or  rye. 

For  swine,  ground  millet  is  a  better  food  than  ground 
oats,  especially  for  young  swine,  a  large  proportion  being 
digestible.  Alone  it  furnishes  good  food  for  sows  nursing 
their  young',  but  is,  of  course,  improved  by  feeding  with 
various  other  grains.  In  tests  made  at  the  South  Dakota 
station,  millet  alone  did  not  prove  equal  to  wheat  or  barley, 
pound  for  pound.  In  fattening  swine,  ground  millet  may  be 
fed  with  corn,  in  any  proportions  desired,  but  the  aim 
should  be  to  have  more  than  50  per  cent  of  corn  in  the  ra- 
tion. 

To  horses,  ground  millet  may  be  fed  with  appropriate- 
ness. Fed  to  foals  and  young  horses,  as  when  oats  are  fed, 
it  produces  muscular  development,  and  fed  to  horses  at 
work,  it  promotes  muscular  strength.  The  ration  is  im- 
proved by  adding  oats,  but  in  the  absence  of  oats,  it  may  be 
made  to  take  their  place  in  a  mixed  ration.  For  exclusive 
feeding,  it  is  not  equal  to  oats,  being  a  somewhat  heavier 
feed. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
FOOD  FROM  BY-PRODUCTS. 

By-products  are  residues  from  the  manufacture  of 
products  primarily  grown  for  some  more  important  use. 
The  by-products  of  food. stuffs  are  the  residues  left  from 
the  manufacture  of  these  various  products  for  which  they 
are  more  commonly  grown.  Thus  bran  is  a  by-product -of 
wheat  manufactured  into  flour.  Cottonseed  meal  is  a  by- 
product of  cotton  seed  from  which  the  oil  has  been  ex- 
tracted. Skim  milk  is  a  by-product  of  whole  milk  from 
which  the  cream  has  been  removed  for  being  made  into  but- 
ter. These  by-products  are  usually  fed  to  live  stock,  and  in 
the  aggregate  they  are  of  immense  value.  The  three  most 
valuable  by-products  in  furnishing  food  for  animals  are, 
wheat  bran,  oil  meal,  and  cottonseed  meal,  but  many  others 
are  also  highly  valuable. 

The  more  important  of  the  by-products  discussed  in 
Chapter  XIII,  obtained  from  the  cereals,  are  the  by-products 
from:  (i)  Wheat,  (2)  barley,  (3)  flax  and  (4)  corn.  The 
discussion  of  the  by-products  of  other  cereals  follows. 
These  are  of  minor  importance  and  include  the  by-products : 
(i)  Of  rye,  (2)  of  oats,  (3)  of  peas,  (4)  of  buckwheat  and 
(5)  of  rice.  The  by-products  obtained  from  certain  food 
products  other  than  cereals  are  then  discussed,  and  they  in- 
clude residues  from:  (i)  Cotton  seed,  (2)  sugar  beets,  (3) 
milk  and  (4)  the  by-product  molasses  obtained  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  sugar.  Lastly,  miscellaneous  by-products  are 
discussed.  They  include  the  following:  (i)  Tankage,  (2) 
dried  blood,  (3)  dried  flesh  meal  and  meat  scrap  and  (4) 
fish  scrap,  also  various  kinds  of  cake  other  than  oil  cake  and 
cottonseed  cake. 

Several  of  these  by-products  are  exceedingly  rich  in 
the  elements  of  plant  growth,  as  well  as  in  food  nutrients. 


266  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Prominent  among  these  are  cottonseed  meal,  oil  meal  and 
wheat  bran,  rich  in  the  order  named.  As  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  these  elements  are  appropriated  by  the  animals  to 
which  they  are  fed,  when  the  voidings  are  carefully  saved 
and  promptly  applied,  they  furnish  fertilizer  of  much  value. 
So  important  is  the  value  of  this  residue,  that  it  should 
never  be  lost  sight  of  in  determining  the  foods  that  shall  be 
fed.  The  wholesale  exportation  of  these  food  products, 
therefore,  from  this  country,  is  to  be  deplored.  It  means 
that  these  resources  of  production  are  fast  being  sent  away 
to  other  lands. 

Wheat  by-products. — Wheat  furnishes  by-products  of 
great  value  in  feeding  live  stock.  The  chief  of  these  are 
bran,  shorts  and  middlings,  but  in  some  instances  a  low 
grade  of  flour  is  also  fed.  It  would  also  seem  correct  to 
speak  of  frosted  wheat,  much  shrunken  wheat  and  screen- 
ings, as  by-products.  Bran  consists  of  the  three  outer  mem- 
branous coats  of  the  kernel  and  also  the  rich  protein  layer 
just  underneath  them.  Shorts  is  simply  reground  bran. 
Middlings  contain  the  finer  bran  particles  and  more  flour 
than  shorts.  The  distinction  between  these  is  not  clearly 
drawn  in  all  instances  either  in  the  composition  of  the  two 
products  or  in  the  more  or  less  interchangeable  way  of  re- 
ferring to  them.  The  low  grade  of  flour  fed  is  commonly 
referred  to  as  "red  dog"  and  in  some  instances  as  "dark 
feeding  flour."  Frozen  or  frosted  wheat  is  wheat  that  has 
been  injured  by  frost  before  maturity.  It  may  be  perfectly 
pure  but  lacks  in  plumfpness  and  hardness,  according  to  the 
stage  of  the  growth  at  which  it  was  frozen.  Shrunken 
wheat  is  that  which  is  small  and  shrivelled,  though  hard  in 
the  berry,  owing  to  some  injury  sustained  by  the  stalk  and 
leaves,  before  the  completion  of  the  ripening  of  the  grain, 
as  when  stricken  by  the  black  rust.  Such  grain  may  make 
good  flour  though  low  in  quantity,  hence  it  is  heavily  dis- 
counted by  buyers.  Screenings  consist  of  small  and  light  or 
broken  kernels  and  the  seeds  of  weeds  that  may  have 
ripened  in  the  grain,  also  in  some  instances  minute  pieces 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  26/ 

of  broken  straw.  From  25  to  33  per  cent  of  wheat  is  made 
into  by-products,  of  course  not  including  the  frosted  or 
shrunken  grain  or  the  screenings. 

Wheat  bran  is  probably  more  extensively  used  in  feed- 
ing live  stock  than  any  single  by-product  of  any  kind  of 
grain.  There  are  but  few  instances  in  which  it  may  not  be 
fed  to  live  stock  with  decided  benefit.  It  is  richer  in  protein 
than  the  whole  grain  which  gives  it  high  adaptation  to  the 
needs  of  growing  animals  and  to  milk  production.  It  con- 
tains a  large  proportion  of  the  mineral  matter  and  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  gluten  which  makes  it  good  bone 
making  food.  It  has  the  requisite  bulkiness  necessary  to 
make  it  feed  well  with  highly  concentrated  foods  such  as 
corn. 

The  germ  remnants  in  it  to  some  extent  promote  diges- 
tion. It  is  also  a  mild  laxative.  The  feeding  value  of  bran, 
except  perhaps  for  young  swine,  is  higher  than  chemical 
analyses  would  indicate.  Moreover,  the  fertilizer  from 
feeding  it  is  rich  in  plant  food.  The  best  interests  of  agri- 
culture, therefore,  demand  that  this  by-product  shall  be  re- 
tained and  fed  in  the  country  to  the  greatest  extent  possible. 

For  calves,  bran  is  excellent  from  the  time  that  they  be- 
gin to  take  food  other  than  milk.  It  is  specially  helpful 
when  feeding  some  concentrated  food  as  corn  or  rye  meal, 
but  is  not  so  necessary  when  feeding  ground  oats.  For 
growing  calves,  the  bran  should  usually  form  not  less  than 
two-thirds  of  the  meal  when  fed  along  with  corn,  rye  or 
barley  meal,  but  for  calves  that  are  being  fattened,  it  should 
not  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  meal  ration  and  in  some 
instances  none  at  all.  For  young  cattle  that  are  being  win- 
tered on  dry  fodder  other  than  clover  hay,  two  or  three 
pounds  of  bran  fed  daily,  or  even  a  less  quantity  with  other 
meal,  will  produce  excellent  results.  There  is  perhaps  no 
kind  of  meal  that  will  not  be  improved  as  food  by  its  pres- 
ence, and  the  more  dense  and  concentrated  the  meal,  the 
more  beneficial  it  is  to  mix  bran  with  it  and  the  larger  is  the 
quantity  of  bran  that  may  be  mixed  into  it. 


268  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

For  cattle  being  fattened,  bran  may  be  fed  with  much 
benefit  as  a  part  of  the  ration  from-  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  feeding  period  when  it  is  not  too  costly,  but  it  should 
be  used  in  very  gradually  decreasing  proportions.  When 
sufficiently  cheap,  it  may  form  as  much  as  one-half  the  grain 
ration  by  weight,  in  the  first  stages  of  fattening.  By  the 
middle  of  the  period,  it  should  seldom  form  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  ration  and  even  a  less  proportion  is  preferable. 
By  the  end  of  the  fattening  period,  only  a  small  amount  is 
needed,  and  when  oil  meal  is  fed,  none  at  all.  In  forced  feed- 
ing with  strong  concentrates  as  corn,  bran  so  lightens  the 
mass  in  the  stomach  that  digestive  disturbances  are  warded 
off,  but  when  oats  form  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
food  fed,  it  is  not  needed  except  in  so  far  as  it  exerts  a 
wholesome  influence  on  the  digestive  tract.  Bran  has  been 
used  with  considerable  success  in  fattening  animals  along 
with  good  prairie  hay  when  the  bran  was  low  in  price. 

For  cows  in  milk,  wheat  bran  is  specially  well  adapted 
since  it  furnishes  abundantly  protein  and  ash  and  also  a 
fair  amount  of  starchy  matter.  Moreover,  its  bulky  char- 
acter, as  in  fattening  cattle,  tends  to  make  more  porous  the 
mass  of  the  heavy  concentrates  when  mixed  with  them. 
Even  cottonseed  meal  is  improved  by  such  admixture,  al- 
though the  nutritive  constituents  are  approximately  the 
same.  Bran  may  form  any  part  of  the  meal  ration  or  the 
whole  of  it,  according  to  the  relative  cost.  When  fed  alone, 
from  eight  to  ten  pounds  may  be  given  to  a  cow  daily.  Fed 
along  with  such  concentrates  as  corn,  rye  and  barley,  the 
fodder  being  carbonaceous  in  character,  as  corn,  sorghum 
or  any  of  the  grasses,  one-half  the  meal  fed  by  weight  may 
consist  of  bran,  but  should  the  fodder  be  leguminous,  as 
clover  hay,  it  will  suffice  if  bran  forms  say  one-third  of  the 
mixture.  Usually  not  more  than  nine  pounds  of  such  a  mix- 
ture are  needed  daily.  Bran,  ground  oats  and  ground  corn,  in 
equal  parts  by  weight,  furnish  a  grand  concentrate  for  dairy 
cows.  No  other  by-product  is  so  much  used  in  feeding  for 
milk  in  this  country  as  bran. 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  269 

For  sheep,  bran  serves  a  good  purpose  and  for  breed- 
ing ewes  when  fed  as  a  part  of  the  grain  ration,  but  it  is 
rather  coarse  for  being  fed  to  very  young  lambs.  It  is  par- 
ticularly helpful  to  breeding  ewes  when  the  fodder  consists 
largely  of  corn  or  the  grasses.  With  such  roughage,  as 
much  as  one-half  the  grain  ration  may  be  composed  of  bran, 
when  such  grain  as  corn,  barley,  or  rye  are  being  fed,  but 
usually  a  less  proportion  will  suffice.  A  mixture  which  is 
two  parts  oats  and  one  bran  by  weight  is  very  valuable  for 
such  feeding.  When  fed  along  with  leguminous  fodders, 
but  little  bran  is  needed.  Subsequently  to  the  lambing  pe- 
riod, the  free  feeding  of  bran  will  be  found  highly  conducive 
to  milk  production.  The  feeding  value  of  bran  is  not  so 
high  relatively  for  sheep  that  are  being  fattened.  Sheep 
are  not  so  fond  of  bran  as  of  some  other  kinds  of  meal  or 
grain,  hence  care  should  be  taken  not  to  feed  it  to  them  in 
excess  while  fattening  or  the  gains  will  not  be  entirely 
satisfactory.  And  yet,  in  the  absence  of  oil  cake  or  field 
roots,  a  small  proportion  of  bran  will  be  found  beneficial. 
Along  with  heavy  corn  feeding  it  is  really  essential. 

For  swine,  bran  has  not  so  high  adaptation  as  for  feed- 
ing cattle,  horses  or  sheep  and  yet  may  frequently  be 
used  with  profit  in  the  judicious  feeding  of  swine.  For 
young  swine  it  is  too  coarse  and  bulky  and  has  in  it  too 
large  a  proportion  of  crude  fibre.  Nor  is  it  the  best  food 
that  can  be  given  to  swine  during  the  growing  period,  but 
with  advance  in  age  it  becomes  increasingly  suitable  for 
them.  It  is  seldom  fed,  even  as  a  part  of  a  ration,  to  swine 
that  are  being  fattened.  It  may,  however,  be  fed  as  a  factor 
of  the  meal  ration  along  with  concentrated  grains  to  brood 
sows  before  or  after  farrowing  and  to  the  extent  of  forming 
when  necessary  at  least  50  per  cent  of  the  meal  fed. 

For  horses,  bran  is  frequently  given  a  place  in  the 
diet  of  animals,  young  and  old,  but  the  amount  fed  daily  is 
usually  quite  small.  In  other  instances  it  is  fed  not  more 
frequently  than  once  or  twice  a  week,  when  it  is  scalded  and 


27O  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

fed  as  a  mash  with  a  view  probably  to  render  it  more  laxa- 
tive. In  other  instances  it  is  not  fed  at  all.  A  small  quan- 
tity fed  daily  exercises  a  salutary  influence  on  the  digestion 
of  horses  of  all  classes  when  on  dry  feed  and  not  worked 
severely,  including  weanling  foals,  yard  horses,  brood 
mares,  stallions  and  horses  at  moderate  work.  It  is  too  laxa- 
tive and  not  sufficiently  nutritive  for  horses  that  are  worked 
severely,  but  in  some  instances  they  have  been  worked  some- 
what severely  for  a  considerable  period  on  bran  as  the  sole 
concentrate. 

Bran  is  rather  preferred  to  middlings  when  feeding  an- 
imals that  are  being  fattened,  whether  cattle  or  sheep,  as  it 
makes  a  more  desirable  blend  with  fine  meals  as  corn  and 
cottonseed  meal  and  is  less  pasty  when  being  masticated. 
Bran  and  shorts  have  been  found  about  equal  for  milk  pro- 
duction when  fed  to  cows,  but  as  a  food  for  swine,  bran  is 
far  below  middlings.  Bran  is  not  quite  equal  to  oats  pound 
for  pound  for  producing  milk,  or  to  a  mixture  of  ground 
oats  and  barley,  but  the  difference  is  slight.  Swine  fed 
chiefly  on  bran  will  not  thrive  so  well  nor  keep  healthy  so 
long  as  swine  fed  chiefly  on  ground  barley  or  rye.  It  should 
not  be  much  used  in  fattening  cattle  when  the  relative  value 
per  pound  is  more  than  one-half  that  of  oil  meal  and  kindred 
feeds.  Bran,  when  fed  daily  to  horses,  is  commonly  fed  dry, 
but  when  fed  occasionally,  as  mash.  It  is  also  fed  in  the  dry 
form  to  cattle  and  sheep  but  is  soaked  before  being  fed  to 
swine. 

Middlings  and  shorts  are  so  nearly  alike  in  their  com- 
position and  feeding  qualities,  notwithstanding  some  differ- 
ences, that  it  will  be  in  order  to  discuss  them  together. 
They  have  more  starchy  matter  and  less  crude  fibre  than 
bran  and  are  therefore  better  adapted  relatively  to  animals 
whose  digestive  capacity  unfits  them  for  taking  large  quan- 
tities of  bulky  food.  Although  it  is  considerably  more  con- 
centrated than  bran,  it  is  no  richer  in  protein  and  is  even 
less  rich  in  mineral  matter.  Middlings  have  never  stood  so 
high  relatively  for  feeding  cattle  and  sheep  as  bran,  but  they 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  27! 

may  be  so  fed  in  due  admixture  with  considerable  benefit. 
They  are  less  satisfactory  as  a  diluent  of  the  heavier  kinds 
of  meal  and  when  fed,  the  quantity  given  is  less  than  in  the 
case  of  bran.  The  results  from  feeding  middlings  and  corn 
to  cows  has  proved  quite  satisfactory,  the  quantity  re- 
quired being  about  25  per  cent  less  than  when  feeding  bran. 
Middlings  are  preeminently  adapted  for  feeding  to  swine. 
No  kind  of  meal  is  better  for  swine  of  all  ages  when  due  re- 
gard is  had  to  the  quantity  fed.  When  the  prices  admit  of 
such  feeding,  they  may  be  made  the  sole  meal  ration  for 
pigs  before  weaning;  a  large  proportion  of  the  same  dur- 
ing the  growing  period,  and  50  to  75  per  cent  of  the  ration 
of  brood  sows  suckling  their  young.  Even  when  pigs  are 
being  fattened  they  are  sometimes  fed  so  as  to  form  from 
25  to  50  per  cent  of  the  ration.  Shorts  and  corn  have  been 
found  to  make  increase  about  25  per  cent  greater  than  corn 
alone  and  considerably  greater  than  shorts  alone.  When 
fed  alone  during  the  finishing  period,  they  produce  pork 
somewhat  soft.  Middlings  and  skim  milk  are  two  of  the 
standard  foods  in  areas  where  bacon  pork  of  prime  quality 
is  produced.  Because  of  the  high  adaptation  of  middlings 
to  pork  production,  under  some  conditions,  it  is  in  order  to 
purchase  them  in  large  quantities  for  feeding  swine.  When 
fed  to  horses,  unless  duly  admixed  with  other  concentrates, 
it  is  said  that  they  tend  to  induce  colic. 

Red  dog  flour  is  rich  in  protein  and  fat.  It  contains 
much  of  the  germs  of  the  wheat  and  because  of  its  compo- 
sition and  fineness  is  preeminently  adapted  for  feeding  to 
growing  swine.  In  limited  quantities  it  has  also  been  found 
quite  useful  for  feeding  to  horses  that  are  worked  hard  and 
to  milch  cows. 

Frosted  wheat  has  much  the  same  feeding  qualities  as 
matured  wheat,  unless  the  freezing  takes  place  several  days 
before  the  wheat  is  matured,  and  is  probably  quite  as  useful 
pound  for  pound  for  feeding  purposes.  The  same  is  true 
of  shrunken  wheat.  It  is  even  richer  in  protein  than  wheat 
not  shrunken,  and  because  of  this  and  of  the  higher  bran 


272  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

element  it  contains,  it  is  more  valuable  relatively  for  some 
kinds  of  feeding  than  plump  wheat.  These  facts  are  im- 
portant to  the  grower  of  wheat  since  frosted  and  shrunken 
wheat  are  much  discounted  in  the  market.  These  may  be 
fed  in  the  same  way  as  matured  wheat  (see  p.  225). 

Wheat  screenings  is  a  sort  of  indeterminable  quantity, 
owing  to  the  great  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  vari- 
ous grades.  Screenings  that  consist  largely  of  broken  ker- 
nels and  small  and  shrivelled  grains,  are  usually  as  valuable 
for  feeding  as  pure  wheat,  whereas  screenings  that  are 
light  and  chaffy  in  character  may  prove  of  out  little  use  for 
any  kind  of  feeding.  Sceenings  in  the  ungrouna  form  are 
usually  fed  to  sheep  that  are  being  fattened  alone  or  in  con- 
junction with  other  kinds  of  grain.  They  have  been  found 
eminently  suited  to  such  feeding,  as'  they  are  a  safe  and 
healthful  food.  Moreover,  they  usually  contain  a  variety 
of  weed  seeds  that  are  rich  in  fattening  properties,  and  that 
are  much  relished  by  sheep.  They  may  be  fed  in  restricted 
quantities  or  in  self  feeders,  and  in  some  instances  but  little 
fodder  is  fed  along  with  them.  They  may  be  fed  in  con- 
junction with  any  of  the  cereals  and  in  any  quantity  de- 
sired. Sometimes  they  are  fed  along  with  wheat  shorts. 
They  are  also  fed  with  good  results  to  cattle  and  swine  in 
the  ground  form  and  soaked  when  fed  to  the  latter. 

Barley  by-products. — Barley  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  beer  and  other  spirituous  liquors.  Conse- 
quently the  by-products  obtained  from  it  are  large  in  vol- 
ume. Chief  among  these  are  brewers'  grains,  distillers* 
grains  and  malt  sprouts.  Brewers'  grains  are  the  residue 
left  after  the  soluble  dextrin  and  sugar  have  been  extracted 
from  the  malt.  Barley  is  valuable  for  malting  in  proportion 
as  it  is  rich  in  starch  and  bright  in  color,  hence  barley,  rich 
in  protein,  and,  therefore,  of  high  value  for  feeding,  may 
grade  low  for  malting,  as  the  starch  is  the  valuable  element 
for  making  beer.  Nearly  all  the  protein  is  left  in  the  grain. 
The  residue,  therefore,  is  richer  relatively  in  nitrogen  than 
the  original  barley,  although  in  the  wet  form  it  is  very  much 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  273 

more  bulky.  Lawes  and  Gilbert  have  shown,  however,  that 
barley  is  worth  more  for  feeding  uses  than  the  malt  and  malt 
sprouts  obtained  from  it.  Brewers'  grains  are  fed  in  the 
wet  form  when  fed  within  a  reasonable  distance  of  the 
brewery,  otherwise  they  are  dried  before  feeding  them.  If 
not  soon  fed  in  the  wet  form,  they  will  spoil,  but  in  the  dried 
form  they  may  be  kept  indefinitely.  Distillers'  grains  are 
the  residue  left  after  the  alcohol  has  been  separated  from 
the  grain  by  distillation,  following  the  fermentive  processes. 
They  have  much  the  same  composition  as  brewers'  grains, 
but  are  more  watery.  They  contain  only  eight  or  nine  per 
cent  of  dry  matter,  whereas  brewers'  grains  contain  about 
24  per  cent.  Malt  sprouts  are  essentially  very  young  barley 
sprouts,  about  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  grain.  They  are 
obtained  by  sprouting  barley  when  preparing  malt.  Fur- 
ther sprouting  is  stopped  by  drying  the  malt  when  the 
sprouts  fall  off  or  are  separated  by  a  winnowing  process. 
As  shown  in  the  table  they  are  very  rich  in  protein. 

For  cattle  of  all  ages,  brewers'  grains  are  much  rel- 
ished and  as  a  source  of  protein  they  rank  high.  They 
are  generally  fed  to  cows  with  a  view  to  milk  produc- 
tion, but  may  also  be  fed  to  other  cattle  when  the  price  will 
admit  of  so  feeding  them.  In  the  dry  form  they  rank  along 
with  such  foods  as  bran  and  oil  meal  for  dairy  cows  and  are 
no  more  perishable  than  either.  They  are  most  extensively 
used  in  New  England  dairies  and  much  is  also  exported  to 
Germany.  Four  to  five  pounds  may  be  fed  daily  to  a  ma- 
ture cow,  and  in  the  wet  form  five  to  six  times  these 
amounts.  They  should  be  fed  along  with,  say  two  to  four 
pounds  of  such  concentrates  as  corn  or  corn  meal  per  day, 
dependent  somewhat  on  the  fodder.  When  fed  in  the  wet 
form  every  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  mangers  and 
feed  boxes  in  a  clean  condition,  especially  in  warm  weather, 
or  offensive  odors  may  arise  which  will  affect  adversely  the 
quality  of  the  milk. 

Inattention  to  these  particulars  has  in  some  instances 
led  to  the  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  such  milk  by  boards  of 


274  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

health.  Brewers'  grains  may  sometimes  be  fed  with  de- 
cided profit  to  calves  and  young  cattle,  but  usually  other 
foods  may  be  obtained  more  cheaply  for  fattening,  unless  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  brewery. 

For  feeding  sheep,  brewers'  grains  are  not  considered 
so  suitable  as  for  feeding  cattle,  especially  in  the  wet  form. 
Sheep  do  not  take  so  kindly  to  sloppy  food  as  swine  or  even 
cows.  But  where  the  cost  will  admit  of  such  feeding,  dry 
brewers'  grains  should  answer  well  as  a  part  of  the  ration 
for  breeding  ewes. 

To  szvine,  brewers'  grains  are  not  much  fed  at  any  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  place  of  their  production,  but 
feeding  them  to  young  swine  will  tend  much  to  promote 
growth,  and  for  sows  nursing  their  young,  they  should  be 
quite  as  good  as  for  cows  nursing  theirs.  But,  as  a  source 
of  protein,  they  will  probably  be  found  too  costly  for  feed- 
ing swine. 

To  horses,  trials  made  on  brewers  grains,  even  when 
at  work,  have  proved  satisfactory.  The  general  condition 
and  also  the  energy  were  pronounced  as  good  as  when  oats 
were  fed.  At  the  New  Jersey  station  it  was  found  econom- 
ical to  feed  them  to  street  car  horses,  but  the  outcome  from 
such  feeding  is  largely  dependent  on  relative  values.  As  a 
food  for  foals,  young  horses  and  brood  mares,  the  results 
should  be  satisfactory  from  the  judicious  feeding  of  brew- 
ers' grains. 

Distillers'  grains,  being  a  very  watery  food  when  fed 
in  the  wet  form,  are  best  adapted  for  being  fed  to  cattle  for 
milk  or  for  beef.  The  stables  in  which  the  animals  are  fat- 
tened are  usually  not  far  distant  from  the  place  of  distilla- 
tion. For  both  uses  these  grains  have  high  adaptation  when 
fed  with  suitable  adjuncts.  They  are  not  so  well  adapted 
for  being  fed  to  sheep,  swine  and  horses,  but  under  certain 
conditions  may  answer  well  for  swine. 

Malt  sprouts  are  commonly  fed  to  cows  for  milk  pro- 
duction. They  are  highly  adapted  for  such  a  use,  since  they 
contain  about  20  per  cent  of  digestible  protein.  Moreover, 


FOODS    FROM     BY-PRODUCTS'  2/5 

when  properly  prepared  for  feeding,  they  are  a  succuient 
food.  But  they  may  also  be  used  in  feeding  various  other 
domestic  animals  by  adding  them  to  the  ration  in  moderate 
quantities,  to  increase  the  protein  in  the  same.  Live  stock 
are  not  usually  so  fond  of  malt  sprouts  as  of  brewers' 
grains,  hence  they  must  needs  be  fed  with  more  moderation. 
From  two  to  three  pounds  will  usually  answer  daily  in  the 
ration  for  milch  cows.  As  they  absorb  much  water,  they 
are  usually  soaked  several  hours  before  feeding  them. 

Flax  by-products. — The  principal  by-product  of  flax 
seed  is  oil  cake,  more  commonly  spoken  of  as  oil  meal.  It 
is  used  as  food  for  live  stock.  Oil  cake  is  the  residue  left 
after  the  oil  has  been  removed.  When  removed  by  hy- 
draulic pressure  only,  it  is  known  as  old  process  oil  cake. 
When  chemicals  are  used  in  extracting  the  oil,  it  is  known 
as  new  process.  It  is  sold  as  oil  cake  or  as  oil  meal,  both 
terms  being  applied  to  it  in  a  somewhat  loose  sense.  Oil 
cake,  properly  speaking,  is  the  residue  pressed  into  large 
flat  cakes  after  the  oil  has  been  removed  from  the  seed  and 
the  moisture  from  the  residue.  Oil  meal  is  the  cake  finely 
ground.  Adulterants  are  sometimes  mixed  with  the  meal. 
The  cake  cannot  be  thus  readily  adulterated,  hence  the 
prefer-ence  for  it  in  foreign  markets.  For  a  similar  reason, 
many  feeders  prefer  to  feed  it  in  the  "nut"  form,  that  is,  in 
the  form  that  is  broken  up  into  small  pieces  about  the  size 
of  mixed  nuts  as  ordinarily  found  in  the  market.  The  meal 
is  usually  fed  to  animals  that  are  quite  young.  It  is  not  well 
suited  to  outdoor  feeding  as  it  may  be  lifted  by  the  wind. 
The  old  process  meal  contains  a  little  more  oil  than  the  new 
and  a  little  less  relatively  of  total  protein.  But  it  has  a 
higher  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  as  cooking  the  meal  in 
the  new  process  reduces  somewhat  the  digestibility  of  the 
protein.  .  The  two  kinds  of  meal  may  be  distinguished  by 
placing  a  small  quantity  of  each  in  separate  glasses  and 
pouring  on  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water.  The  old  process 
meal  thus  treated  will  form  a  jelly-like  mass,  and,  since  the 
new  process  meal  has  been  already  cooked,  it  does  not  jelly 


276  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

again.  In  feeding  value,  the  old  and  new  process  meals  do 
not  differ  greatly.  The  former  has  probably  a  higher  feed- 
ing value  for  young  calves  and  lambs,  owing  to  its  higher 
content  of  oil  or  fat. 

Oil  cake  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  useful,  if  not 
the  most  generally  valuable  and  useful  of  all  the  by-prod- 
ucts of  the  farm.  It  is  not  only  rich  in  protein,  but  it  is 
preeminently  a  safe  food.  When  fed  judiciously,  there  is 
no  class  of  animals  kept  upon  the  farm  to  which  it  may  not 
be  fed  with  profit  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period.  It  is 
much  relished  by  all  classes  of  domestic  animals,  and  it  is 
to  some  extent  an  appetizer  as  well  as  a  food.  It  is  mildly 
laxative  and  exercises  a  salutary  influence  on  the  digestive 
tract.  There  is  no  kind  of  meal  with  which  it  may  not  be 
fed  satisfactorily  should  occasion  call  for  such  feeding.  As 
stated  elsewhere,  its  real  feeding  value  is  considerably  high- 
er than  chemical  analysis  would  assign  to  it.  It  also  gives 
to  the  hair  a  glossy  appearance  indicative  of  thrift  on  the 
part  of  the  animal  possessing  it. 

For  cattle  of  all  ages  and  of  all  classes,  oil  cake  fur- 
nishes an  admirable  food.  Its  value  for  feeding  calves  dur- 
ing the  milk  period  has  already  been  referred  to  (see 
p.  250).  To  all  classes  of  growing  animals,  it  may  be  fed 
with  much  benefit  in  the  winter  season  along  with  grain  or 
meal,  when  not  too  dear  for  such  feeding.  It  may  form  as 
much  as  10  per  cent  of  the  concentrate  fed.  Its  use  is 
equally  helpful  in  the  winter  grain  ration  for  cattle  that  are 
to  be  finished  on  pasture.  But  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  feed 
it,  nor  will  the  benefits  be  so  great  relatively,  when  field 
roots  are  being  fed  at  the  same  time.  In  fattening  cattle, 
it  is  a  favorite  food,  but  rather  as  an  adjunct  to  the  meal  ra- 
tion than  as  a  principal  portion  of  the  same.  In  other  words 
the  benefits  are  relatively  greater  when  the  oil  cake  is  fed  in 
moderate  quantities  of  say  one  to  three  pounds  rather  than 
as  a  principal  factor  in  the  same.  But  should  the  cost  jus- 
tify it,  oil  cake  may  be  fed  to  the  extent  of  forming  half 
the  meal  ration,  the  other  portion  being  some  carbonaceous 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  277 

food  as  corn.  From  such  feeding,  rapid  gains  are  secured. 
It  is  more  common  to  feed  oil  cake  in  small  quantities  and 
toward  the  close  of  the  fattening  season,  as  then  the  sooth- 
ing effects  of  this  food  are  more  needed  than  at  other  times. 
When  feeding  for  show  purposes,  it  is  almost  considered  in 
a  sense  a  necessity,  because  of  the  favorable  influence  which 
it  exerts  on  digestion  under  forced  feeding,  and  also  be- 
cause of  the  fine,  glossy  coat  which  results  from  feeding  it. 
As  a  food  for  cows  in  milk,  oil  cake  -up  to  a  certain  limit  is 
most  satisfactory.  Beyond  that  limit  it  is  thought  to  affect 
the  quality  of  butter  adversely,  both  in  regard  to  firmness 
and  keeping  properties.  The  limit  may  be  fixed  at,  say 
three  pounds  per  animal  per  day.  Carefully  conducted  tests 
have  shown  that  the  increase  in  milk  production  did  not 
keep  pace  with  increase  in  amount  of  oil  cake  fed,  when  fed 
in  large  quantities.  In  tests  at  the  Pennsylvania  experiment 
station,  it  was  found  that  rather  more  milk  resulted  from 
feeding  cotton  seed  meal,  but  that  a  little  more  butter  re- 
sulted from  feeding  oil  meal,  pound  for  pound.  As  a  regu- 
lator of  digestion,  oil  meal  is,  of  course,  as  helpful  with 
dairy  cows  as  with  animals  that  are  being  fattened.  The 
necessity  for  feeding  it  decreases  with  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  carbohydrates  fed,  and  also  in  the  forcing  char- 
acter of  the  ration,  and  with  increase  in  the  amount  of  bran, 
field  roots  or  other  succulent  food  fed 

For  sheep,  oil  cake  is  quite  as  satisfactory  as  for  feed- 
ing cattle.  It  furnishes  an  excellent  food  for  feeding  to 
lambs,  even  at  an  early  age  or  as  a  part  of  the  grain  ration 
subsequently  to  the  weaning  season.  A  limited  amount  is 
excellent  for  sheep  that  are  being  wintered  on  dry  food  and 
for  breeding  ewes.  When  fattening  lambs  and  mature  sheep 
on  dry  food,  it  is  equally  beneficial,  and  may  be  fed  to  them 
in  larger  quantities,  proportionate  to  the  forced  character 
of  the  feeding.  More  commonly  it  is  not  fed  to  form  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  meal  ration,  but  may  be  in  a  much 
larger  proportion  when  the  price  will  justify  such  feeding. 


278  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

For  swine,  oil  cake  is  probably  not  so  valuable  rela- 
tively as  for  feeding  cattle  and  sheep,  especially  when  fed 
in  relatively  large  quantities,  as  when  thus  fed  it  seems  to 
affect  adversely  the  appetite.  But  when  fed  to  form  not 
more  than  5  per  cent  of  the  meal  portion,  the  results  will 
be  beneficial.  Small  amounts  may  be  fed  with  profit  to  swine 
under  all  conditions,  except  when  they  are  being  given  an 
abundance  of  succulent  food. 

In  feeding  horses,  oil  cake  is  quite  as  helpful  as  in  feed- 
ing cattle  and  swine.  Under  all  conditions,  moderate  quan- 
tities may  be  fed  with  benefit  to  horses  of  all  classes  and  of 
all  ages,  except  when  they  are  on  pasture  or  are  being  given 
other  succulent  food  as  field  roots.  The  grain  ration  given 
to  foals,  to  horses  not  yet  mature  and  to  brood  mares,  will 
be  improved  by  adding  to  it  say  5  per  cent  of  oil  meal. 
Work  horses  may  be  fed  say  one-fourth  of  a  pound  per  day 
under  average  conditions.  Quantities  considerably  larger 
should  be  given  to  horses  that  are  being  prepared  for  spring 
work.  Under  almost  all  conditions  this  food  tends  to  give 
a  gloss  to  the  coat  which  materially  improves  the  appear- 
ance. 

Corn  by-products. — Chief  among  the  products  of  corn 
are  starch,  sugar,  glucose,  alcohol  and  beer.  These  are  not 
used  as  food  for  live  stock.  In  their  manufacture,  however, 
certain  residues  are  left  which  are  of  much  value  in  feeding 
certain  classes  of  live  stock.  Prominent  among  them  are 
gluten  meal  and  gluten  feed.  The  minor  by-products  fed  to 
stock  include  corn  bran,  corn  germ  and  corn  oil  meal.  Glu- 
ten meal  is  a  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  starch  and 
glucose.  It  is  what  remains  after  the  hull,  starch  and  germ 
have  been  removed.  It  is  separated  from  the  starch  by  the 
action  of  water.  As  the  analysis  indicates,  it  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein and.  has  a  feeding  value  equal  to  that  of  oil  cake.  Glu- 
ten feed  is  virtually  what  is  left  of  the  corn  germ  after  the 
starch  has  been  removed.  It,  therefore,  contains  both  the 
hull  and  the  germ  and  as  a  result  is  lower  in  protein  and 
higher  in  crude  fibre  than  gluten  meal.  Gluten  meal  and 


FOODS   FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  279 

gluten  feed,  because  of  their  concentration,  are  usually  fed 
in  conjunction  with  foods  less  concentrated,  as  wheat  bran. 
Corn  bran  is  composed  of  hulls  removed  from  the  kernels. 
From  5  to  6  per  cent  of  the  grain  consists  of  hull  or 
bran.  Corn  bran  contains  practically  all  the  crude  fibre 
found  in  the  grain.  Its  feeding  value  is  low,  but  it  may  be 
used  with  advantage  in  diluting  concentrated  foods  by  mix- 
ing it  with  them.  Corn  germs  are  very  rich  in  protein, 
ether  extract  and  in  mineral  matters,  hence  their  adaptation 
for  being  fed  with  caution  to  young  animals.  They  com- 
prise about  10  per  cent  of  the  kernel.  Corn  oil  meal  is  the 
residue  of  the  germ  that  is  left  after  the  oil  has  been  ex- 
tracted from  it.  It  may  be  fed  in  considerable  quantities  to 
young  animals.  For  such  feeding  it  is  valuable.  When  the 
products  of  the  factories  are  disposed  of  in  a  wet  condition, 
they  are  known  as  wet  starch  or  wet  glucose  feeds. 

To  cattle  of  all  classes  and  ages,  gluten  meal  has  been 
found  not  only  a  safe  food,  but  also  one  that  is  relatively 
economical.  It  is  palatable  also  as  well  as  safe.  It  may  be 
fed  with  much  freedom  to  calves  during  the  milk  period  and 
subsequently,  and  also  to  growing  animals  to  which  concen- 
trates are  fed.  The  other  foods  to  be  fed  with  it  will  de- 
pend on  the  object  sought  in  feeding.  When  growth  only  is 
sought,  the  complement  of  the  gluten  should  be  such  food 
as  oats.  When  fattening  also  is  sought  it  should  be  such 
food  as  corn.  As  a  food  adjunct  in  fattening  cattle  at  the 
Ohio  experiment  station,  it  was  found  fully  equal  to  oil 
meal  in  making  increase  on  the  basis  of  relative  cost  when 
the  price  paid  for  oil  meal  pound  for  pound  was  twice  that 
of  gluten  meal.  For  feeding  cows  it  has  been  found  fully 
equal  to  cottonseed  meal  when  fed  so  that  the  nutrients  are 
equal.  When  feeding  gluten  meal  to  cattle  the  aim  should 
be  to  feed  it  with  some  more  bulky  concentrate  unless  when 
it  is  being  fed  to  young  calves. 

For  sheep,  gluten  meal  has  not  been  much  used  as 
concentrate.     It  should,  however,  because  of  its  reasonably 
fine  character  and  high  protein  content,  make  an  excellent 


2&O  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

food  for  young  milk  lambs.  It  should  also  feed  well  with 
such  foods  as  corn  in  fattening  sheep  when  a  little. bran  also 
is  fed  to  increase  the  bulk  and  to  prevent  constipation. 

For  young  swine,  gluten  meal  furnishes  an  excellent 
food.  When .  thus  fed,  its  concentration  and  fineness  are 
beneficial  rather  than  otherwise.  For  such  feeding  it  may 
take  the  place  of  wheat  middlings  when  the  cost  is  not  too 
much  For  growing  swine  of  all  ages  it  is  also  excellent. 
In  trials  made  at  the  Vermont  experiment  station,  gluten 
meal  fed  along  with  corn  was  found  to  be  7  per  cent 
more  valuable  than  wheat. 

To  horses,  gluten  meal  is  not  much  fed  for  the  reason 
probably  that  it  is  thought  to  be  more  valuable  relatively  for 
growing  animals  and  for  milk  production.  Nevertheless, 
it  may  be  fed  with  much  propriety  as  a  part  of  the  ration 
for  foals,  when  the  price  will  admit  of  it.  It  will  also  go 
well  along  with  corn  when  the  latter  furnishes  the  bulk  of 
the  ration  for  work  horses. 

To  young  animals,  when  gluten  meal  is  fed,  a  small 
amount  of  oil  meal  should  improve  the  ration,  as  the  for- 
mer does  not  contain  the  mildly  laxative  principle  found  in 
the  latter.  For  a  similar  reason,  a  small  proportion  of 
wheat  bran  will  be  found  helpful  when  gluten  meal  is  fed  to 
animals  going  on  toward  maturity  or  matured.  If  field 
roots  are  being  fed,  the  advantages  from  feeding  oil  cake 
or  wheat  bran  will  be  less  apparent  if  at  all  in  evidence. 

Much  that  has  been  said  about  gluten  meal  will  apply 
nearly  as  well  to  gluten  feed,  the  proportion  of  protein  be- 
ing less  and  of  crude  fibre  more  than  in  gluten  meal.  Glu- 
ten feed  is  not  quite  so  suitable  for  young  animals.  On  the 
other  hand,  its  somewhat  greater  bulk  makes  the  addition 
of  some  such  food  as  bran  less  necessary  when  it  is  fed  to 
animals  well  grown.  The  use  of  gluten  meal  and  gluten 
feed  will  certainly  increase  much  in  the  future  since  much 
increase  in  the  manufacture  of  by-products  from  corn  is 
assured. 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  28l 

Other  cereal  by-products. — The  by-products  of  rye, 
oats,  peas,  buckwheat  and  rice,  are  possessed  of  some  feed- 
ing value,  but  they  are  not  so  valuable  relatively  as  the  by- 
products of  wheat,  barley,  corn  and  flax. 

Rye. — Rye  by-products ;  viz.,  rye  bran  and  rye  shortc? 
are  chemically  not  far  different  from  those  of  wheat.  In 
some  of  the  countries  of  northwestern  Europe,  they  are  used 
to  a  considerable  degree  in  feeding  stock.  In  America,  rye  is 
not  extensively  manufactured  into  bread,  consequently  its 
by-products  are  not  to  be  had  in  large  amounts  for  feeding. 
Rye,  bran  and  shorts  are  sometimes  fed  for  milk  produc- 
tion, but  they  are  not  so  highly  prized  for  such  a  use  as  the 
by-products  of  wheat.  It  is  said  that  when  these  products 
are  thus  fed  in  large  quantities,  they  affect  adversely  the 
flavor  of  both  milk  and  butter.  Rye  shorts  have  not  proved 
equal  to  rye  or  barley  for  making  pork,  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  production.  The  pork  also  made  from  rye 
shorts  has  been  pronounced  inferior  in  quality,  being  softer 
and  also  shrinking  more  than  pork  made  from  ground  rye 
or  barley. 

Oats. — The  principal  by-products  of  oats  are  known  as 
oat  feed  and  oat  dust.  These  are  variable  in  their  compo- 
sition, but  not  infrequently  the  former  is  composed  of  oat 
chaff  and  the  latter  of  minute  hairs  found  at  one  end  of  the 
kernel.  Broken  grains  add  to  the  value  of  such  food. 
When  composed  entirely  of  hulls,  it  is  not  worth  much 
more  than  an  equal  weight  of  oat  chaff.  It  is  not  infre- 
quently used  to  adulterate  mill  feed,  the  presence  of  the 
hulls  being  intended  to  show  that  the  mixture  cont?^ 
ground  oats.  Oat  meal,  such  as  is  used  for  porridge,  i  an 
excellent  food  on  which  to  start  young  animals  when  be- 
ginning to  take  food  other  than  milk. 

Peas. — The  chief  by-product  of  peas  comes  from  es- 
tablishments where  they  are  commercially  prepared  as  hu- 
man food.  It  is  frequently  referred  fo  as  split  peas.  It 
consists  of  broken  and  defective  kernels  and  any  foreign 


282  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

food  substances  found  in  the  grain  as  it  comes  to  the  fac- 
tories. Such  food  in  the  unground  form  is  excellent  for 
feeding  sheep  and  in  the  ground  form  for  feeding  cattle  and 
sheep. 

Buckwheat. — The  principal  by-product  of  buckwheat 
is  the  hulls.  They  are  of  low  feeding  value,  so  low  as  to  be 
of  questionable  utility  for  ordinary  "feeding.  Unscrupulous 
dealers  sometimes  use  them  in  a  finely  ground  form  for 
adulterating  mill  feed.  When  used  thus  in  considerable 
quantities,  they  give  a  brownish  or  dark  tint  to  the  food. 

Rice. — The  chief  by-products  of  rice  are  known  as  rice 
hulls,  rice  grain,  rice  polish  and  rice  meal.  Rice  hulls  are 
very  woody  and  are  possessed  of  but  little  feeding  value 
when  used  alone,  but  they  may  serve  a  useful  purpose  by 
mixing  them  with  certain  kinds  of  meal  to  increase  their 
porosity.  Rice  grain  is  composed  of  the  outer  portions  of 
the  kernel  and  a  part  of  the  germ.  As  a  food  for  cows  and 
pigs  it  is  possessed  of  considerable  value.  Rice  polish, 
which  is  a  dust-like  powder,  is  rich  in  the  elements  of  nutri- 
tion, and  has  proved  valuable  in  feeding  cows  and  pigs. 
Rice  meal  is  said  to  be  excellent  for  milk  production,  and 
for  such  a  use  may  be  freely  fed  with  safety. 

Cotton  seed  by-products. — Cotton  seed  as  it  comes 
from  the  gin  consists  of  hull,  kernel  and  fibre.  The  hull  is 
the  hard,  tough,  leathery  covering.  The  kernel  is  the  soft 
part  of  the  seed  within,  of  a  yellowish  color  and  of  oily  con- 
sistency. The  lint,  more  commonly  kjnown  as  "linters," 
consists  of  short  fibres  not  removed  by  the  gin.  The  by- 
products of  cotton  seed  are  meal,  hulls,  oil  and  lint.  Ac- 
cording to  the  tenth  census  of  the  United  States,  35  per 
cent  of  the  seed  consists  of  meal,  48.9  per  cent  of  hull,  12.5 
per  cent  of  oil  and  i.i  per  cent  of  lint.  Other  authorities 
give  the  percentage  of  oil  as  being  somewhat  greater.  The 
meal  and  hulls  only  of  these  by-products  are  used  for  feed- 
ing live  stock.  Until  within  a  comparatively  recent  period 
the  hulls  were  used  as  fuel  by  the  oil  mills. 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  283 

Cottonseed  meal  is  the  finely  ground  residue  of  the 
kernel  after  the  oil  has  been  removed  from  it.  In  color  it 
should  be  a  light  yellow.  A  dark  color  in  the  meal  indicates 
the  presence  of  ground  hulls.  This  may  be  definitely  ascer- 
tained by  putting  a  small  quantity  of  the  meal  in  a  glass, 
pouring  over  it  hot  water  accompanied  or  followed  by  stir- 
ring, allowing  it  to  settle  for  but  a  few  seconds  and  then 
pouring  off  the  unsettled  portion.  If  the  residue  is  darker 
in  color  than  the  untreated  meal,  ground  hulls  are  present, 
and  if  successive  treatments  intensify  the  dark  color  of  the 
sediment,  the  adulteration  is  proportionate.  Cottonseed 
meal  is  probably  the  richest  protein  food  in  the  market.  It 
contains  about  37  per  cent  of  digestible  protein.  When  fed 
in  reasonable  quantities  and  in  proper  combination  with 
other  food  stuffs,  it  furnishes  a  satisfactory  food  for  all 
classes  of  farm  animals  except  swine,  and  in  some  instances 
calves.  When  damaged  by  mould  or  wet,  or  by  undue  heat- 
ing, it  should  not  be  fed. 

For  cattle,  cottonseed  meal  has  been  found  of  great 
value  except  in  feeding  calves.  While  in  some  instances 
calves  do  well  on  it,  in  other  instances  death  has  resulted 
from  feeding  it  even  in  small  quantities  over  prolonged 
periods.  The  difference  in  the  methods  of  feeding  the  meal 
and  in  the  combinations  in  which  it  is  fed,  may  account 
for  the  difference  in  the  results  referred  to.  Two  or  three 
pounds  daily  fed  to  young  cattle  when  not  on  pasture,  will 
prove  very  helpful  in  promoting  growth.  When  the  accom- 
panying fodders  are  leguminous,  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of 
the  meal  should  consist  of  corn,  barley  or  rye.  A  small 
amount  of  wheat  bran  or  oats  fed  along  with  it  lightens  up 
the  ration. 

This  meal  is  excellent  for  fattening  cattle.  The 
proportion  of  the  cottonseed  meal  and  corn  to  be  fed 
will  depend  upon  the  stage  of  the  fattening  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  fodder.  The  proportion  of  the  corn  should  in- 
crease with  the  advancement  of  the  feeding  period  and  with 
increase  in  the  carbonaceous  character  of  the  fodder  and  vice 


284  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

versa.  Usually  not  more  than  4  or  5  pounds  per  ani- 
mal are  fed  daily  at  any  stage  of  the  fattening  to  a  mature 
cattle  beast.  In  some  instances  in  the  South,  large  numbers 
of  cattle  are  fattened  at  the  mills  on  cotton  seed  and  hulls. 
At  first,  they  are  not  fed  more  than  3  or  4  pounds  of 
the  meal  daily,  which  is  gradually  increased  to  6  to  10 
pounds  according  to  the  capacity  of  the  animals.  They  are 
given  in  addition  all  the  hulls  that  they  will  consume,  and 
in  90  to  1 20  days  are  ready  for  the  shambles. 

Cottonseed  meal  has  proved  a  very  satisfactory  food 
for  dairy  cows.  In  certain  trials  made,  it  has  been  found 
superior  even  to  wheat  bran,  pound  for  pound,  in  sustaining 
the  milk  flow,  at  least  for  a  limited  period.  As  much  as  6 
pounds  per  day  may  be  fed  for  short  periods  of  feeding, 
but  not  more  than  4  pounds  per  day  should  be  given  in 
prolonged  feeding  for  milk  or  butter  production,  and  3 
pounds  would  probably  be  a  safer  amount.  It  is  a  strong 
concentrate,  and  if  fed  in  excess,  deranged  digestion  will 
certainly  follow.  It  has  been  claimed  that  cottonseed  meal 
should  be  fed  with  a  prudent  caution  to  cows  within  two  or 
three  months  of  calving,  and  for  three  or  four  weeks  sub- 
sequently. It  feeds  well  along  with  ground  oats,  as  the 
oats  furnish  the  necessary  bulk.  From  the  standpoint  of 
nutrients,  cottonseed  meal  and  corn  make  an  excellent  com- 
bination, and  cotton  seed  and  rye  or  barley  are  suitable,  but 
the  addition  of  some  bran  to  add  to  the  bulk  will  improve 
the  ration.  Cottonseed  meal  adds  to  the  firmness  of  butter, 
a  fact  of  no  little  importance  in  warm  climates. 

For  sheep,  cottonseed  meal  judiciously  used  is  quite 
helpful.  Fed  along  with  oats  it  makes  a  good  concentrate 
for  breeding  ewes,  more  especially  when  the  fodder  is  car- 
bonaceous. One  part  of  cottonseed  meal  and  three  parts  of 
oats,  or  one  and  two  parts  of  each  when  a  small  amount  is 
fed,  should  prove  satisfactory.  At  all  times,  however,  it 
should  be  fed  with  a  prudent  caution  to  pregnant  ewes, 
lest  it  should  cause  abortion.  If  the  roughage  were 
leguminous,  corn  could  be  fed  instead  of  oats.  For  sheep 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  285 

and  lambs  that  are  being  fattened,  cottonseed  meal  and 
corn  have  been  found  to  answer  well  in  the  South,  when 
oats  are  fed  instead  of  corn  in  whole  or  in  part  until 
the  animals  are  on  full  feed.  The  safer  plan  is  to  start 
them  on  oats  and  then  to  add  corn  gradually.  After  about 
three  weeks  of  feeding,  add  say  l/4  pound  of  cottonseed 
meal  per  day,  and  gradually  increase  the  amount  until  the 
meal  ration  consists  of  one  part  cottonseed  meal  and  two 
parts  corn  by  weight. 

For  swine,  cottonseed  meal  is  not  an  entirely  safe 
food  when  fed  to  them  in  any  considerable  quanti- 
ties, and  for  a  prolonged  period,  would  seem  to  be  a 
conclusion  justified  by  the  results  of  experience  and  also 
by  those  of  experiment.  It  has  been  noticed  that  swine  to 
which  cottonseed  meal  is  fed  for  prolonged  periods  eventu- 
ally begin  to  show  lack  of  thrift,  and  finally  a  large  pro- 
portion of  them  sicken  and  die,  unless  the  feeding  of  the 
meal  should  be  discontinued  when  the  first  symptoms  of 
sickness  appear.  These  results  sometimes  follow,  but  not 
in  all  instances,  when  the  meal  is  obtained  through  the 
medium  of  the  droppings  of  cattle  when  cottonseed  meal 
forms  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  concentrate  fed  to 
them.  When  only  a  small  amount  is  fed,  the  injurious  in- 
fluences to  the  swine  are  seldom  if  ever  manifested.  Tbe 
sickness  in  swine  to  which  meal  is  fed  directly,  usually  be- 
gins in  30  to  50  days,  according  to  the  inherent  vigor  of  the 
animals,  the  amount  fed,  and  the  losses  increase  with  the 
prolongation  of  the  feeding.  If  swine  thus  affected  are  re- 
moved from  cattle  yards  and  fed  on  other  food  for  a 
few  weeks,  they  may  again  be  allowed  to  glean  for  a  time 
in  the  cattle  yards  without  hazard.  The  symtoms  of  the 
sickness  include  moping  and  sluggishness  in  the  victims,  a 
tendency  to  lie  apart  and  loss  of  appetite.  There  is  labored 
breathing  and  weak  heart  action.  Post  mortems  have 
shown  that  the  digestive  tract  has  been  highly  inflamed. 
These  results  follow  when  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the 
regular  ration  is  composed  of  cottonseed  meal.  Roasted 


286  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

seed  has  been  found  about  equally  harmful,  but  boiling  the 
seed  very  greatly  reduces  the  danger.  The  ill  effects  have 
been  ascribed  to  the  lint,  to  moulds,  and  to  changes  in  the 
composition  of  the  meal  through  exposure.  Others  think 
they  are  due  to  the  presence  of  some  principle  in  the  meal 
itself  that  is  poisonous  to  swine,  and  cumulative  in  its 
action  Notwithstanding,  some  feeders  affirm  that  cotton- 
seed meal  may  be  fed  to  swine  with  safety  when  it  is  fed  in 
the  form  of  a  thin  slop,  about  the  consistency  of  buttermilk. 
This  they  clam  will  prevent  injury  from  the  lint  which 
they  believe  to  be  the  source  of  the  danger. 

For  horses,  as  a  concentrate,  cottonseed  meai  should 
be  fed  only  as  a  small  part  of  the  ration.  In  trials 
made,  as  much  as  2  pounds  per  animal  per  day  have 
been  fed  with  safety,  but  when  the  amount  fed  was  in- 
creased much  beyond  2  pounds  per  day,  the  outcome  was 
not  entirely  satisfactory.  Experience  in  feeding  it  up  to 
the  present  would  indicate  that  it  should  only  be  fed  in  lim- 
ited quantities  to  horses  and  mules. 

Cotton  seed  hulls,  in  the  ground  form,  are  fed  with 
much  freedom  to  cattle  and  sheep  that  are  being  fattened, 
also  to  cows  giving  milk  (see  p.  425).  To  cows  in  milk 
as  much  as  14  or  15  pounds  per  day  have  been  fed  for  each 
1000  pounds  of  live  weight  in  the  cows,  without  produc- 
ing harmful  results.  Feeding  large  amounts  has  resulted 
in  deranged  digestion,  evidencd  in  some  instances  in  a 
lax  condition  of  the  bowels,  and  in  others  in  a  constipated 
condition  of  the  same.  When  fattening  cattle  and  sheep 
in  proximity  to  the  mills,  they  are  frequently  given  hulls 
to  take  the  place  of  roughage  and  are  allowed  to  consume 
virtually  all  that  they  will  eat  up  clean. 

While  cottonseed  meal  is  possessed  of  great  value  for 
feeding  live  stock,  from  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  evi- 
dent that  there  are  restrictions  which  must  be  observed  in 
feeding  it.  Its  highest  value  is  found  in  fattening  cattle 
and  in  feeding  cows  for  milk.  It  should  only  be  fed  in 
small  quantities  to  horses,  while  the  wisdom  of  feeding  it 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  287 

to  calves  quite  young  and  to  swine,  is  at  least  problematical. 
These  restrictions  upon  feeding  this  by-product  lower  its 
value  somewhat  relatively,  when  comparing  it  with  such 
foods  as  oil  cake  and  gluten  meal. 

Sugar  beet  by-product. — Sugar  beet  pulp  is  the  resi- 
due left  from  sugar  beets  after  the  sugar  has  been  ex- 
tracted. It  is  fed  in  the  fresh  form  as  taken  from  the  fac- 
tory, as  ensilage  and  also  in  the  dried  form.  It  is  probable 
that  it  will  be  a  food  product  of  much  importance  relatively 
in  this  country,  as  the  sugar  beet  industry  promises  to  be- 
come one  of  much  magnitude  in  the  near  future.  Owing 
to  the  bulky  nature  of  the  pulp  in  the  fresh  form  and  to  the 
large  amount  of  water  that  it  contains,  it  should  be  fed  at  or 
near  the  factories,  but  in  the  dried  form  it  is  not  more 
costly  to  transport  than  concentrated  foods.  Farmers  who 
live  near  the  factory  may  feed  the  fresh  pulp  with  profit 
during  a  limited  portion  of  the  year.  Feeders  who  save  it 
by  ensiling  at  the  factory,  may  feed  it  with  advantage  dur- 
ing the  major  portion  of  the  same,  as  it  is  not  difficult  to 
preserve  it.  It  may  be  ensiled  in  the  same  way  as  corn  and 
other  green  fodders,  but  it  may  also  be  preserved  by  putting 
it  into  large,  basin-like  pits  excavated  in  ^  the  ground,  into 
which  it  is  dumped  to  the  depth  of  several  feet  and  allowed 
to  remain  until  it  is  fed.  Decay  follows  to  the  depth  of  a 
few  inches  from  the  surface.  Underneath  this  decayed 
mass,  the  pulp  will  keep  indefinitely.  In  proximity  to  the 
factories  it  is  fed  from  these  pits  or  silos  to  large  numbers 
of  cattle  and  sheep  that  are  being  finished  for  the  market. 

The  undried  pulp  is  not  only  too  costly  to  transport, 
but  it  soon  ferments  when  exposed.  About  90  per  cent  of 
the  pulp  is  water.  But  little  of  the  protein  is  removed  in 
the  juice,  hence,  the  pulp  is  particularly  valuable  as  a  food 
for  young  animals,  and  for  producing  milk.  As  it  exercises 
a  salutary  influence  on  digestion,  the  pulp  has  a  feeding 
value  in  excess  of  the  nutrients. which  it  contains,  when  ju- 
diciously fed  and  along  with  dry  food.  This  physiological 
value,  so  to  speak,  decreases  with  increase  in  the  quantity 


288  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

fed,  and  may  be  lost  entirely  by  excessive  feeding.  When 
fed  heavily,  it  induces  a  lax  condition  of  the  bowels,  hence 
the  wisdom  of  feeding  dry  fodders  along  with  it.  Wheat 
bran,  clover  and  alfalfa  make  very  suitable  complementary 
foods.  The  pulp  is  not  equal  to  the  beets  in  feeding  value, 
and  for  fattening  its  value  is  considerably  lower. 

For  cattle,  sugar  beet  pulp,  like  sugar  beets,  is  excel- 
lent and  for  all  classes  of  cattle.  It  is  particularly  valuable  as 
a  food  for  young  animals,  and  it  may  be  fed  to  them  with 
much  freedom,  that  is,  from  say  five  to  20  pounds  a  day,  ac- 
cording to  size  and  the  other  food  fed.  To  cattle  that  are 
finished,  as  much  as  75  pounds  per  day  may  be  fed  to  ma- 
ture animals  under  some  conditions.  Good,  tender  and 
juicy  meat  may  be  made  from  sugar  beet  pulp  and  alfalfa 
hay  only,  but  usually  some  grain  may  be  profitably  fed  in 
addition.  The  pulp  is  particularly  valuable  for  dairy  cows. 
As  much  as  50  pounds  per  day  may  be  fed  for  long  periods, 
and  for  short  periods  much  more  than  that  amount.  The 
cost  of  the  pulp  should,  of  course,  have  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  amount  fed,  and  when  fed,  the  usual  meal  ration 
may  be  proportionately  reduced.  In  the  dried  form,  as 
much  as  3  to  5  pounds  per  day  may  be  fed  along  with  say  30 
pounds  of  corn  ensilage. 

For  feeding  sheep,  beet  pulp  is  excellent,  whether  kept 
for  breeding  uses  or  in  fattening  them.  A  very  fair  qual- 
ity of  mutton  may  be  made  from  pulp  and  clover  or  al- 
falfa without  grain,  but  under  average  conditions,  a 
limited  amount  of  grain  will  tend  to  cheapen  the  ration. 
It  will  be  seldom  found  profitable  to  feed  sheep  more 
than  10  pounds  daily,  and  usually  a  less  amount  will  be 
more  profitable. 

For  swine,  sugar  beet  puip  is  useful  especially  during 
the  growing  period  and  for  sows  when  not  on  pasture. 
Young  and  growing  swine  may  be  allowed  to  partake  of  the 
pulp  with  much  freedom.  Brood  sows  may  be  wintered  on 
the  same  with  the  addition  of  a  moderate  amount  of  grain. 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  289 

It  should  not,  however,  be  fed  to  pigs  that  are  being  fat- 
tened in  any  considerable  quantities,  owing  to  its  bulk- 
iness. 

For  horses,  sugar  beet  pulp  in  the  undried  form  is 
not  so  valuable  relatively  as  for  feeding  cattle  or  sheep, 
but  a  few  pounds  daily  may  be  fed  with  considerable 
benefit  to  young  animals  and  brood  mares  on  dry  feed. 
If  fed  in  any  considerable  quantities  to  horses  hard  at 
work,  it  induces  too  lax  a  condition  of  the  bowels. 

Milk  by-products. — The  chief  of  the  by-products  of 
milk  that  are  used  in  feeding  live  stock,  are  skim  milk, 
buttermilk  and  whey.  Skim  milk  is  the  residue  left  after 
the  cream  has  been  removed  from  the  whole  milk.  But- 
termilk is  the  residue  left  from  churning  the  cream  after 
the  butter  has  been  removed.  Whey  is  the  residue  left 
in  making  cheese  after  the  curd  has  been  removed.  Skim 
milk  is  chiefly  fed  to  calves  and  swine,  but  is  not  infre- 
quently fed  to  foals,  and  may  also  be  fed  to  lambs.  But- 
termilk is  chiefly  used  in  feeding  swine  but  may  also  be 
fed  to  calves.  Whey  is  chiefly  used  in  feeding  swine,  but 
is  not  infrequently  used  also  in  feeding  calves.  The 
value  of  these  by-products,  more  especially  the  first,  as 
a  source  of  food  for  live  stock,  is  very  great. 

Skim  milk  is  obtained  by  two  processes ;  viz.,  by 
hand  skimming  and  by  removal  through  the  aid  of  cen- 
trifugal machines.  By  the  first  process,  the  whole  milk, 
as  soon  as  obtained,  is  strained  and  left  in  shallow  pans 
or  dishes,  or  in  deep  cans  set  in  water,  until  the  fat  glob- 
ules rise  to  the  top  of  the  milk,  when  they  are  removed 
by  pouring  off  the  cream.  By  the  second  process,  the 
milk  runs  through  a  centrifugal  machine  termed  a  sepa- 
rator, which  is  driven  at  a  speed  so  high  that  the  fat 
globules  are  quickly  separated  and  -  drawn  off  as  cream. 
By  the  process  of  hand  skimming,  about  twice  as  much 
butter  fat  remains  in  the  skim  milk  as  when  removed  by 
the  centrifugal  process,  but  even  with  hand  skimming,  it 
is  seldom  that  more  than  .7  of  one  per  cent  of  the  fat  is 


290  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

left  in  the  milk  and  by  the  other  process,  more  than  one- 
half  of  that  amount.  This  preponderance  in  its  fat  con- 
tent gives  skim  milk  obtained  by  the  gravity  process, 
some  superiority  for  feeding  to  stock,  but  it  is  probably 
more  than  offset  by  the  fresh  and  warm  condition  in 
which  separator  skim  milk  is  usually  fed. 

.  For  calves,  skim  milk  is  virtually  the  standard  food 
during  the  first  months  of  their  existence,  when  they 
are  not  allowed  to  suck  the  dams,  and  it  will  become  so 
more  and  more  as  the  conditions  of  farming  intensify. 
The  market  value  of  whole  milk  is  such  that  under  many 
conditions  of  feeding,  it  will  not  be  profitable  to  feed  it 
to  any  class  of  animals  on  the  farm  except  when  of  ten- 
der age.  The  exceptions  are,  when  range  or  semi-range 
conditions  prevail,  where  high  class  beef  producers  are 
grown  to  provide  baby  beef  (see  p.  402),  and  where 
young  animals  of  beef  types  are  being  prepared  for  the 
show  ring.  It  would  be  approximately  correct  to  say,  that 
during  the  first  three  months  of  the  life  of  a  calf,  from 
9  to  IO  pounds  of  milk  would  be  required  to  make 
one  pound  of  increase.  During  the  first  weeks,  such  in- 
crease should  be  made  from  half  the  amount  named,  but 
the  gains  which  accrue  from  such  feeding,  will  be  much 
influenced  by  the  individuality  of  the  calves.  Notwith- 
standing the  high  value  relatively  of  whole  milk,  even 
when  calves  are  grown  substantially  on  skim  milk,  it  is 
greatly  advantageous  to  feed  whole  milk  for  a  time,  be- 
ginning, of  course,  with  the  birth  of  the  young  animal 
as  no  substitute  has  been  found  for  whoje  milk  that  so 
completely  meets  the  needs  of  young  animals. 

The  duration  of  the  period  for  feeding  whole  milk 
will  depend  first,  on  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  the  calf, 
and  second,  on  its  inherent  vigor.  When  the  calf  is  to 
be  sold  for  veal,  the  greatest  profit  will  result  probably 
from  feeding  it  all  the  whole  milk  that  it  can  profitably 
take,  and  selling  it  at  the  earliest  age  at  which  it  will 
take  the  market.  When  it  is  to  be  sold  between  the  ages, 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS'  2QI 

say  of  6  and  15  months,  the  whole  milk  ration  may  con- 
tinue for  say  two  or  three  weeks  longer.  It  may  then  be 
gradually  changed  to  skim  milk,  taking  two  to  three 
weeks  to  make  the  transition.  It  is  made  by  withholding 
new  milk  in  gradually  increasing  quantities  until  none 
is  given,  and  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  skim  milk  fed 
in  due  proportion.  When  the  animals  are  reared  for 
producing  dairy  products,  whole  milk  is  sometimes  fed 
for  a  period  not  to  exceed  one  week  before  beginning 
to  feed  skim  milk,  and  frequently  not  more  than  one 
week  is  occupied  in  making  the  change  from  all  new  milk 
to  all  skim  milk.  In  more  instances,  however,  the  period 
of  transition  covers  two  weeks.  When  the  animals  are 
to  be  grown  for  meat  and  finished  when  approaching  ma- 
turity, it  may  frequently  be  profitable  to  feed  all  new 
milk  for  say  three  weeks,  and  to  make  the  period  of 
change  to  extend  over  two  or  three  weeks  more.  Habit 
in  digestion  is  usually  influenced  at  an  early  age. 

The  earlier  the  animal  is  to  be  disposed  of  when 
reared  chiefly  on  skim  milk  during  the  milk  period,  the 
more  should  the  habit  of  fat  production  be  encouraged 
by  feeding  new  milk  and  vice  versa.  When  grown  for 
the  dairy,  muscular  development  is  sought  rather  than 
fat,  hence  no  more  whole  milk  should  be  fed  than  is  nec- 
essary to  start  the  calves  aright  in  the  way  of  correct  de- 
velopment. 

The  duration  for  feeding  whole  milk  should  be  de- 
termined largely  by  the  inherent  stamina  of  the  anirrjal. 
It  is  greatly  important  in  the  development  of  both  ani- 
mals and  plants,  that  growth  at  the  first  shall  start  vig- 
orously. Should  the  digestion  become  impaired  at  an 
early  age,  satisfactory  development  subsequently  sel- 
dom follows.  Whole  milk,  therefore,  should  be  fed  for  a 
period  sufficiently  long  and  enough  of  it  should  be  fed  to 
insure  to  the  young  animal  a  vigorous  start. 

The  amount  to  feed  will  depend  on  the  capacity  of 
the  animal  to  take  the  food,  on  its  age,  and  on  the  extent 


292  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

to  which  the  milk  is  supplemented  by  other  food.  When 
milk  can  be  spared,  it  may  be  fed  up  to  the  limit  of  the 
capacity  of  the  calf  to  take  it  without  deranging  the  di- 
gestion, one  of  the  first  indications  of  which  is  a  lax  con- 
dition of  the  bowels.  Usually  8  to  10  pounds  per 
day  will  prove  ample  during  the  first  week  of  feeding 
skim  milk,  that  is  to  say,  about  the  third  week  of  the  life 
of  the  calf.  This  quantity  may  be  increased  at  the  rate 
of,  say  l/z  pound  per  week  up  to  the  age  of  say  15  or  16 
weeks,  or  as  long  as  the  milk  period  continues.  When 
desired,  however,  the  skim  milk  may  be  so  supplemented 
by  other  foods,  that  amounts  considerably  less  than  those 
named  may  be  fed  without  serious  detriment  to  the 
calves. 

The  duration  of  the  milk  feeding  period  may  be  in- 
fluenced by  such  conditions  as  the  milk  supply,  the  needs 
of  the  animals,  and  the  extent  to  which  cheaper  foods  are 
substituted.  Usually  calves  may  be  more  cheaply  reared 
on  small  or  moderate  amounts  of  milk  than  on  larger 
amounts  of  the  same,  but  such  feeding  calls  for  an  intelli- 
gent selection  and  use  of  supplemental  foods.  When 
skim  milk  is  abundant,  it  may  be  fed  to  calves  for  many 
months.  Some  feeders  have  fed  it  to  yearlings  when  seek- 
ing much  growth  while  preparing  them  for  exhibition. 

The  nature  of  the  supplementary  foods  to  be  given 
with  the  skim  milk  wilj  vary  somewhat  with  the  purpose 
for  which  the  calves  are  reared.  But,  whatever  that  end 
may  be,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  add  ground 
flax  seed,  oil  meal  or  flax  seed  gruel  to  the  milk,  as  soon 
as  the  change  from  whole  milk  to  skim  milk  begins.  In 
this  way,  fat  may  be  supplied  from  a  cheap  source  in  lieu 
of  that  removed  from  the  skim  milk  that  is  fe.d.  The 
amount  of  the  meal  required  at  the  first  may  not  ex- 
ceed a  heaped  teaspoonful,  but  this  should  be  increased 
as  the  calves  are  able  to  take  it,  but  not  to  the  extent  of 
inducing  too  lax  a  condition  of  the  bowels.  The  gruel  is 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS'  293 

made  by  soaking  flax  seed  for  several  hours  in  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  water,  and  then  boiling  it  for  one  hour.  It 
is  then  fed  to  the  calves  in  the  milk  and  when  the  milk 
is  cold  it  will  be  advantageous  to  add  the  gruel  while  it  is 
yet  warm.  When  the  calves  are  grown  for  veal  or  baby 
beef,  no  meal  given  in  addition  is  more  suitable  than 
ground  corn.  Ground  corn  and  ground  barley  are  ex- 
cellent. In  such  instances  the  calves  may  be  fed  grain 
to  the  limit  of  their  capacity  to  consume  it  as  long  as 
they  are  fed  milk,  and  in  some  instances  for  a  period  con- 
siderably longer. 

For  sheep,  skim  milk  is  not  much  used  nor  is  it  proba- 
ble that  it  will  ever  be  thus  fed  to  any  considerable  extent. 
As  sheep  suckle  their  lambs,  it  is  not  required  for  such  feed- 
ing. But  should  necessity  require  it,  skim  milk  fed  to  lambs 
in  the  fresh  form,  will  be  quite  as  helpful  to  them  as  to 
calves.  Such  food  may  aid  materially  in  the  development 
of  lambs  that  are  being  grown  for  exhibition. 

For  swine,  skim  milk  is  of  great  value.  It  may  be 
fed  to  them  with  advantage  and  profit  at  all,  or  nearly 
all  stages  of  growth,  and  under  nearly  all  conditions  of 
feeding.  It  is  equally  good  for  pigs  not  yet  weaned,  be- 
tween the  weaning  and  fattening  period,  and  for  brood 
sows  during  pregnancy  and  while  nursing  their  young. 
It  is  probably  true,  that,  as  with  calves,  the  relative 
profit  from  feeding  it  decreases  as  the  birth  period  is  re- 
ceded from,  and  for  the  reason  that  other  protein  foods 
may  be  fed,  adapted  to  such  feeding,  that  may  be  ob- 
tained at  less  cost,  from  other  sources.  For  the  same 
reason  it  is  also  true,  that  more  relative  profit  is  usually 
obtained  from  feeding  skim  milk  to  swine  subsequently 
to  weaning  in  moderate  rather  than  in  large  amounts. 
Even  during  the  fattening  period,  skim  milk  is  very  suit- 
able for  feeding  along  with  corn,  but  it  can  seldom  be 
spared  for  such  feeding.  When  judiciously  fed,  the 
feeding  value  of  100  pounds  of  skim  milk  is  fully  equal 
to  that  of  one  bushel  of  corn.  But  to  obtain  such  value 


294  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

from  it,  very  moderate  amounts  should  be  fed.  In  certain 
trials  made,  it  has  been  found  that  the  best  results  have 
been  obtained  when  not  more  than  3  pounds  of  milk  were 
fed  along  with  i  pound  of  meal. 

For  horses,  skim  milk  is  not  much  used,  but  in  cer- 
tain instances  where  the  supply  was  plentiful,  it  has  been 
fed  to  them  in  considerable  quantities  with  results  that 
were  satisfactory,  even  when  fed  to  horses  at  work  of  no 
little  severity.  It  has  been  found  highly  useful  in  feed- 
ing foals  that  are  being  reared  by  hand,  and  also  in  some 
instances  subsequently  to  the  season  of  weaning. 

The  condition  in  which  milk  is  fed  to  young  animals 
exercises  an  important  influence  on  the  results  that  fol- 
low from  feeding  it.  The  aim  should  be  to  feed  it  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  heat  which  milk  possesses  when 
drawn  from  the  cow,  that  Is  at  a  temperature  of  100  to  102°. 
While  yet  sweet  it  is  considered  superior  for  feeding  to 
young  animals  to  milk  that  is  sour,  but  the  experiments 
to  determine  this  have  not  been  entirely  uniform.  That 
milk  which  is  curdled  even  has  considerable  feeding  value 
when  fed  to  animals  well  started  in  growth,  cannot  be 
gainsaid.  The  vessels  in  which  it  is  fed  should  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean,  otherwise  they  may  readily  prove 
the  medium  of  conveying  bacteria  to  the  animals  that 
may  prove  harmful. 

Buttermilk,  when  undiluted,  has  about  the  same  feed- 
ing value  as  skim  milk,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  chemist.  Equally  good  results  have  been  obtained 
from  feeding  it  to  swine  when  not  of  tender  age,  but  it 
has  not  proved  so  generally  satisfactory  for  all  kinds  of 
feeding  as  skim  milk.  It  may  be  fed  successfully  to  calves 
by  those  who  are  skilled  in  such  feeding,  but  it  has  not 
proved  so  highly  satisfactory  as  skim  milk.  Some  cau- 
tion is  also  necessary  in  feeding  it  to  young  pigs  and 
to  brood  sows  nursing  them.  Loss  has  been  incurred  by 
such  feeding  with  sufficient  frequency  to  render  apparent 
the  presence  of  an  element  of  hazard.  It  may,  however, 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  295 

have  resulted  from  feeding  the  milk  when  not  in  the  best 
of  condition.  Buttermilk  is  frequently  diluted  with  water 
especially  at  creameries,  and  when  so  diluted,  its  value 
is,  of  course,  proportionately  lessened. 

Whey  is  so  bulky  a  food  that  it  ranks  relatively  low 
in  nutrition.  Its  value  for  feeding  is  influenced  by  the 
source  from  which  it  comes,  by  the  class  of  animals  to 
which  it  is  fed,  and  by  its  condition  at  the  time  of  feeding. 
Whey  obtained  ffom  the  manufacture  of  full  cream  cheese 
has  considerably  more  fat  than  that  obtained  from  the  man- 
ufacture of  skim  cheese.  Certain  feeding  trials  conducted 
have  shown  that  for  feeding  swine,  about  800  pounds  ob- 
tained from  the  former  and  about  1200  pounds  obtained 
from  the  latter  source  are  equal  to  100  pounds  of  grain. 

The  best  results  have  been  obtained  from  feeding  whey 
to  swine  in  conjunction  with  such  adjuncts  as  ground  corn, 
wheat,  barley  or  rye.  It  is  less  valuable  for  young  animals 
than  for  those  that  are  older.  Calves  reared  on  whey  do 
not  thrive  so  well  as  those  reared  on  skim  milk.  The  whey 
is  so  bulky  and  withal  so  low  in  nutrition,  that  calves  thus 
reared  carry  an  undue  amount  of  paunch,  and  are  charac- 
terized by  a  more  or  less  unthrifty  condition.  Both  may,  of 
course,  be  measurably  counteracted  by  feeding  a  liberal 
amount  of  such  adjuncts  as  oil  meal  and  other  meal  from 
nutritious  grains.  The  outcome  is  more  satisfactory  when 
the  calves  are  well  started  on  whole  or  skim  milk  or  both. 

It  is  important  that  whey  shall  be  fed  while  yet  sweet 
and  fresh.  The  acid  or  semi-acid  condition  in  which  it  is  fre- 
quently fed,  especially  when  returned  from  cheese  factories, 
is  in  a  considerable  degree  responsible  for  the  unsatisfac- 
tory results  obtained  from  feeding  it.  The  aim  should  be 
to  feed  it  while  yet  sweet  and  care  should  be  taken  to  scald 
the  vessels  daily  in  which  to  keep  the  feed. 

Molasses  by-product. — Molasses  is  a  product  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  cane  and  also  from 
beets.  Formerly  much  of  this  valuable  feeding  product  was 
wasted,  but  during  recent  years  its  real  worth  is  coming  to 


296  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

•  be  more  generally  understood.  As  the  sugar  beet  industry 
increases,  so  will  the  use  of  this  by-product  in  feeding  in- 
crease, consequently  it  would  not  be  possible  at  the  present 
time  to  forecast  the  extent  to  which  it  may  yet  be  used  in 
feeding  live  stock.  Its  highest  use  is  found  in  feeding 
horses  at  work  and  in  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  but  it  has 
also  proved  helpful  in  feeding  in  certain  combinations  for 
milk  production.  The  real  value  of  molasses  in  feeding  is 
greater  than  chemical  analysis  assigns  -to  it,  since  when 
mixed  with  other  foods  it  adds  to  the  palatability  and  so  in- 
creases consumption.  The  belief  is  common  among  practi- 
cal feeders,  and  it  probably  rests  on  a  basis  of  truth,  that 
the  free  feeding  of  molasses  tends  to  sterility  in  males  and 
to  barrenness  in  females.  It  is  probable  that  henceforth 
nearly  all  the  molasses  made  at  sugar  beet  factories  will  be 
mixed  with  the  pressed  pulp  and  dried  before  it  is  put  upon 
the  market.  The  product  thus  prepared  is  ready  for  feed- 
ing by  simply  mixing  it  with  other  foods  or  adding  it  to 
them  dry,  but  more  commonly  with  all  the  water  added  that 
it  will  absorb.  The  objection  to  feeding  a  substance  so 
sticky  as  liquid  molasses  poured  over  the  feed  is  thus  avoid- 
ed, more  or  less  of  which  adheres  to  the  feed  boxes  and  in 
summer  attracts  many  flies. 

For  cattle,  molasses  is  being  used  in  increasing  quanti- 
ties. Mixed  with  dried  blood,  it  aids  development  in  calves 
that  are  being  prepared  for  the  block.  They  furnish  an  ex- 
cellent complement  to  such  food  as  cottonseed  meal  when 
fed  to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened.  The  product  has  besn 
much  used  in  preparing  animals  for  exhibition.  It  has  thus 
led  to  increased  consumption  of  the  other  food  and  im- 
proved the  gloss  of  the  coat.  It  is  commonly  poured  over 
meal  or  what  is  better,  over  meal  and  cut  fodders  mixed. 
It  is  frequently  diluted  with  water  before  thus  mixing  it. 
As  a  food  for  milk  production,  it  is  fed  in  smaller  quanti- 
ties. Dried  molasses  beet  pulp  may  yet  be  used  extensively 
as  a  supplementary  food  for  dairy  cows,  summer  and  winter. 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  297 

Until  more  light  has  been  obtained,  however,  as  to  its  innu- 
ence  on  the  breeding  properties  of  animals,  it  should  be  fed 
with  prudent  caution,  more  especially  to  young  animals  in- 
tended for  breeding. 

In  feeding  sheep  molasses  has  not  been  mucn  used,  but 
recent  experiments  at  the  Michigan  experiment  station  have 
shown  that  dried  molasses  beet  pulp  had  a  feeding  value  for 
fattening  sheep  even  higher  than  that  of  corn. 

To  swine,  molasses  has  been  fed  successfully  along 
with  skim  milk.  Its  use,  however,  in  feeding  swine  will 
probably  be  limited,  as  an  appetizer  is  less  necessary  for 
swine  than  for  the  other  classes  of  farm  animals. 

For  horses,  molasses  is  probably  more  valuable  in 
feeding  them  when  at  work  than  in  feeding  any  other  class 
of  farm  animals.  Not  less  than  two  quarts  per  day  of  cane 
molasses  may  be  fed  with  advantage  to  work  horses  and 
mules  for  prolonged  periods.  The  molasses  is  diluted  with 
three  times  its  bulk  of  water  and  poured  over  the  morning 
and  evening  ration.  It  is  common  to  feed  a  little  bran  along 
with  cane  molasses  to  correct  a  tendency  to  constipation 
which  is  said  to  result  from  feeding  it.  It  is  claimed  that 
it  is  nutritious,  healthful  and  economical.  It  may  yet  be- 
come popular  to  feed  it  to  horses  that  are  being  wintered  on 
products  coarse  and  cheap,  and  fed  in  the  cut  form. 

Miscellaneous  by-products. — Certain  by-products 
have  been  used  in  feeding  which  'merit  some  attention,  but 
the  limited  extent  to  which  they  are  used  in  this  country  will 
scarcely  justify  discussing  them  at  length.  For  convenience 
of  treatment  they  are  grouped  as  miscellaneous.  These  in- 
clude tankage,  dried  blood,  dried  flesh  meal  and  meat  scrap, 
fish  scrap,  and  various  kinds  of  cake. 

Tankage  is  made  from  certain  waste  products  of 
slaughter-houses,  as  meat  scraps  and  fat  trimmings.  The 
tallow  is  removed  by  cooking,  and  the  residue  when  dried 
is  put  upon  the  market  as  tankage.  Tankage  varies  with 
variations  in  the  waste  products  which  it  contains,  and  also' 
with,  the  relative  proportions  of  these,  hence  the  need  for 


298  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

careful  discrimination  as  to  the  amount  that  shall  be  fed.  It 
is  used  chiefly  as  a  source  of  protein  in  feeding  swine,  more 
especially  when  the  other  food  consists  mainly  of  corn.  For 
such  feeding  it  has  been  found  decidedly  profitable  even 
when  the  price  of  tankage  is  30  to  40  per  cent  greater  than 
that  of  corn.  Tankage  must  be  fed  with  some  care  as  it 
is  a  highly  concentrated  food.  Usually  it  is  not  fed  so  as  to 
make  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  ration.  When  feeding 
tankage  it  should  be  carefully  mixed  with  the  food,  thus  se- 
curing an  even  distribution.  It  must  be  kept  dry  or  putre- 
faction will  set  in,  which  makes  it  offensive  to  handle  and 
harmful  to  the  stock,  and  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  soak 
very  long  before  it  is  fed. 

Dried  blood  is  simply  blood  from  slaughtered  animals 
from  which  the  water  or  liquid  has  been  removed.  In  the 
process  of  drying  enough  heat  is  applied  to  kill  any  disease 
germs  that  may  be  present.  Formerly  it  was  used  chiefly 
for  fertilizing,  but  now  it  is  more  commonly  used  in  feeding 
calves  and  swine.  As  shown  in  the  table  it  is  exceedingly 
rich  in  protein  and  the  relative  digestibility  is  high.  It  has 
been  found  highly  useful  in  feeding  calves.  To  some  extent 
it  is  thought  to  be  a  corrective  of  scours.  It  may  be  fed  in 
the  milk  or  meal,  beginning  with  say  a  teaspoonful  and 
gradually  increasing  with  the  needs  of  the  animals.  It  has 
also  been  fed  to  lambs  with  profit,  the  blood  to  some  extent 
taking  the  place  of  milk.  Its  highest  use  probably  is  found 
in  feeding  swine,  when  fed  in  conjunction  with  carbo- 
naceous foods  as  corn.  Swine  at  three  months  may  be 
given  say  one  tablespoonful  daily,  younger  animals  being 
given  a  proportionately  less  quantity. 

Dried  flesh  meal  and  meat  scrap  are  more  or  less  anal- 
ogous in  their  composition.  The  former,  properly  speak- 
ing, is  composed  of  the  ground  flesh  of  animals  after  the 
melted  fat  and  moisture  have  been  removed.  The  latter 
consists  of  the  better  grades  of  slaughter-house  waste, 
somewhat  similarly  prepared.  The  preparation  of  flesh  meal 


THE  \ 

UNIVERS1T 

FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  299 


as  a  commercial  food  product  was  first  undertaken  in  Uru- 
guay at  the  instigation  of  Baron  Liebig,  in  days  when  many 
animals  were  slaughtered  simply  for  their  hides.  It  has 
been  used  more  for  feeding  swine  than  any  other  class  of 
live  stock,  but  it  has  also  been  fed  successfully  to  rumi- 
nants. By  feeding  small  quantities  at  first  and  increasing 
very  gradually  the  amount  fed,  they  will  at  length  take  with 
safety  as  much  as  2  or  3  pounds  per  day.  Lambs  and 
sheep  come  to  relish  it  in  time,  and  they  thrive  on  a  due  pro- 
portion of  such  food.  Mixed  with  ground  grain  and  made 
into  cakes,  it  is  claimed  that  horses,  to  which  these  are  fed, 
show  increased  vigor  and  nerve  power. 

Fish  scrap  is  the  residue  from  fish  that  are  being  dried 
or  canned  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed  and  the  product 
dried.  In  some  instances  it  is  composed  in  part  or  alto- 
gether of  fish  that  are  not  suitable  for  human  food.  It  is 
fed  as  cake  and  also  in  the  ground  form.  Because  of  its 
high  fertilizing  value,  it  has  been  designated  fish  guano,  and 
is  not  infrequently  applied  directly  to  the  land  for  its  en- 
richment, but  where  the  facilities  are  present,  it  will  be 
found  profitable  to  feed  it  to  live  stock  and  then  to  apply 
the  resultant  fertilizer  to  the  land. 

Both  fish  scrap  and  fish  meal  are  fed  to  live  stock  in 
certain  of  the  maritime  areas  of  northwestern  Europe. 
Good  gains  have  resulted  from  feeding  3  to  4  pounds 
per  day  to  mature  steers  of  good  size,  and  the  quality  of  the 
meat  was  considered  good.  It  is  thought  that  incautious 
feeding  to  dairy  cows  will  produce  undesirable  taint  in  the 
milk  and  butter  but  it  may  certainly  be  fed  in  reasonable 
quantities,  that  is,  up  to  the  limit  of  say  2  pounds  per  day 
without  producing  such  results.  It  has  been  but  little  used 
in  feeding  cows  in  America,  but  in  Norway  it  is  freely  used 
for  such  feeding.  Mature  sheep  have  made  good  use  of  as 
much  as  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a  pound  fed  daily  along 
with  suitable  adjuncts.  It  may  be  fed  more  freely  to  swine 


5-3  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

than  to  cattle  or  sheep.  Along  the  coast  of  Maine,  it  is  used 
to  some  extent  in  feeding  sheep,  and  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  feeding  swine. 

Sundry  meals. — In  addition  to  oil  cake  and  meal  and 
cottonseed  cake  and  meal,  already  discussed  (see  pp.  275, 
283),  are  certain  other  kindred  products  more  or  less  freely 
fed  in  certain  areas,  but  not  much  used  as  food  for  stock  in 
the  United  States  or  Canada.  Prominent  among  these  are 
peanut  meal,  sunflower  meal,  cocoanut  meal  and  palmnut 
meal.  All  these  are  valuable  chiefly  as  a  source  of  protein  and 
a  means  of  increasing  the  amount  of  the  same  in  a  ration. 
As  with  oil  meal  and  cottonseed  meal,  all  these  are  valuable 
for  milk  and  meat  production,  and  also  in  improving  the 
tone  of  the  digestion  when  judiciously  fed.  But  for  work- 
ing animals,  no  kind  of  oil  meal  can  take  the  place  of  grain. 

Peanut  meal,  made  from  peanuts  after  the  oil  has  been 
expressed,  is  one  of  the  richest  among  foods  in  protein.  In 
certain  trials  made  it  was  found  to  have  a  feeding  value 
fully  equal  to  beans.  Owing  to  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
growth  of  peanuts  in  the  United  States,  and  to  the  increase 
in  the  manufacture  of  oil  from  the  same,  peanut  meal  may 
yet  become  a  food  factor  of  considerable  importance  for 
live  stock  in  the  southern  states. 

Sunflower  cake  and  meal  are  manufactured  somewhat 
extensively  in  Russia,  and  are  prized  as  food  for  stock  in 
some  of  the  countries  of  western  Europe.  As  a  source  of 
oil,  however,  sunflowers  are  not  grown  in  the  United  States 
to  any  appreciable  extent,  if  indeed  at  all.  Nor  is  their 
growth  for  such  a  use  likely  to  increase  in  the  near  future, 
owing  to  the  amount  of  hand  labor  called  for  in  harvesting 
the  crop.  The  equivalent  in  food  nutrients  can  be  obtained 
more  cheaply  in  other  forms. 

Cocoanut  meal,  sometimes  called  cocoa  meal,  is  the  res- 
idue from  the  manufacture  of  cocoanut  oil.  This  meal  has 
been  found  useful  as  a  concentrate  adjunct  in  feeding  cat- 
tle, sheep,  swine  and  horses.  The  price  restricts  its  use  in 
the  United  States.  It  is  considerably  used,  however,  in 


FOODS    FROM    BY-PRODUCTS  3OI 

feeding  dairy  cows  in  the  coast  regions  of  California.  It  is 
claimed  that  good,  firm  butter  may  be  made  from  it  even 
when  it  is  fed  with  some  liberality.  It  answers  well  as  a 
food  adjunct  for  sheep  and  swine. 

Palmnut  meal  is  the  residue  from  the  manufacture  of 
palm  oil.  The  oil  palm  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America,  also  Africa,  but  not  on  the 
North  American  continent.  In  some  countries  of  Europe, 
it  is  extensively  used  in  feeding  stock.  It  has  good  keeping 
qualities,  and  is  much  prized  as  a  food  for  dairy  cows. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
FOOD  FROM  PASTURES. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  tame  pastures  as  a 
source  of  food  for  live  stock  have  not,  as  a  rule,  been  taken 
at  their  true  worth,  owing  probably  to  the  large  area  of  new 
or  rugged  lands  that  have  furnished  native  pasture  and  to  the 
very  large  area  covered  by  the  ranges  of  the  West.  The  rich- 
ness of  the  virgin  soils,  during  the  early  years  of  their  culti- 
vation, encouraged  the  growing  of  crops  on  them,  other  than 
grass,  to  the  comparative  neglect  of  the  latter.  Hence  it 
is,  that  the  continent  is  possessed  of  but  limited  areas  of  per- 
manent mixed  grasses,  and  that  but  little  attention  has  been 
given  relatively  to  the  improvement  of  pastures  of  any  kind. 
Notwithstanding,  food  from  pastures  will  always  be  one  of 
the  cheapest  sources  from  "which  it  can  be  obtained. 

The  sources  of  pasture  may  be  said  to  be  fourfold.  These 
are:  (i)  The  pastures  of  the  range  country;  (2)  pastures 
on  rugged  land  in  areas  where  tillage  is  common;  (3)  per- 
manent pastures  natural  or  made;  (4)  temporary  pastures. 
Those,  from  the  source  last  named,  are  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant, not  only  because  of  the  large  areas  devoted  to 
their  growth  but  because  of  the  renovating  influence 
which  nearly  all  of  them  exert  upon  the  soil,  and  because 
of  the  fertility  which  many  of  them  bring  to  it. 

The  pastures  of  the  western  ranges  will  always  be  of 
large  extent,  though  more  and  more  circumscribed  with  the 
passing  of  the  years.  That  the  production  of  wide  areas 
has  already  been  greatly  reduced  by  over  depasturing  is 
a  matter  of  history.  That  even  range  pastures  are  suscep- 
tible of  renovation  is  also  being  demonstrated.  To  discuss 
the  methods  by  which  they  may  be  renovated  would  be 
foreign  to  this  book  which  treats  of  foods  rather  than 
of  growing  them. 


FOOD    FROM    PASTURES  303 

Native  pastures  on  rugged  or  low  lands,  too  low  for  suc- 
cessful cultivation  until  drained,  are  of  course  indigenous 
to  the  locality  in  which  they  grow.  Usually  those  on  forest 
land  have  come  in,  as  it  were,  spontaneously  on  the  cutting 
away  of  the  trees.  On  wet  lands  they  have  grown  un- 
changed, it  may  be,  for  centuries.  Kentucky  blue  grass 
is  one  of  the  most  common  and  valuable  of  the  former 
and  redtop  of  the  latter.  It  is  possible  to  transform 
some  native  pastures  by  simply  sowing  the  seeds  of  other 
grasses  at  an  opportune  time,  and  in  the  case  of  wet  lands 
by  changing  the  conditions  as, to  the  extent  of  the  satura- 
tion. 

Permanent  pastures  include  native  pastures  both  on 
rugged  and  low  lands  referred  to  above,  and  also  pastures 
specially  prepared  with  a  view  to  permanency.  These 
may  include  only  a  single  variety  of  grass,  but  usually 
they  include  a  number  of  varieties  of  grasses  grown  together. 
Blue  grass  in  the  North  and  Bermuda  grass  in  the  South  fur- 
nish instances  of  the  former.  More  commonly,  mixed  grasses 
grown  with  a  view  to  permanency,  are  sown  on  lands  natur- 
ally moist  and  favorable  to  grass  production.  They  are  grown 
in  combination,  the  better  to  furnish  grazing  at  all  times 
through  the  growing  season  and  to  furnish  more  grazing 
than  would  be  obtained  from  a  single  variety. 

Temporary  pastures  include,  first  pastures  grown  but 
for  one  season  and  frequently  as  a  catch  crop,  and  second, 
those  grown  for  a  longer  term  of  years.  The  former  in- 
clude the  small  cereal  grains  grown  alone  or  in  mixtures; 
plants  of  the  Brassica  family;  the  sorghums,  saccharine, 
and  non-saccharine,  and  certain  root  crops.  The  tem- 
porary pastures  usually  grown  for  a  longer  term  than 
one  year  include  various  grasses  and  clovers.  These  may 
be  grown  singly,  but  are  usually  grown  in  combinations. 
These  are  sometimes  mown  one  or  more  years  and  are 
then  grazed  one  or  more  years.  Those  readers  who  desire 


304  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

further  information  with  reference  to  pastures  are  referred 
to  the  book,  "Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,"  by  the 
author. 

The  further  discussion  of  this  question  will  consider: 
(i)  The  leading  grass  plants;  (2)  the  leading  clover 
plants;  (3)  plants  of  the  Brassica  family  used  in  grazing; 

(4)  the    saccharine    and    non-saccharine1   sorghums,    and 

(5)  cereals    grown    to   provide    grazing,    more    especially 
winter   rye.     These   will  be  considered   with   reference  to 
their   feeding  value   and   adaptation   for   grazing.      Some- 
thing will   be   added   more   or   less   general   in   character, 
with  reference  to  the  grazing  of  pastures  and  their  care. 

The  leading  grasses. — The  leading  pasture  grasses 
are  Kentucky  blue  (Poa  pratensis),  Russian  brome  (Bro- 
mus  inermis),  Timothy  (Phleum  pratense),  Western  rye 
grass  (Agropyrum  caninum),  Redtop  (Agrostis  vulgaris} 
and  in  the  South,  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon). 
These  are  probably  generally  valuable  for  pasture  in  the 
order  named. 

Kentucky  blue,  king  among  pasture  grasses  on  this 
continent,  is  characterized  by  a  reasonably  early  and  late 
growth,  and  by  a  resting  period  in  midsummer.  It  is 
probably  the  finest  in  its  habit  of  growth  and  the  most 
generally  palatable  of  all  the  grasses.  Although  soils  that 
have  sustained  forests  have  usually  the  highest  relative 
adaptation  for  growing  this  grass,  it  is  fast  spreading  over 
all  the  areas  embraced  in  the  western  prairies.  Close  graz- 
ing tends  materially  to  lessen  the  production.  When  done 
in  the  autumn,  it  very  much  tends  to  retard  growth  in  the 
spring. 

Even  though  grazing  should  be  deferred  until  the 
autumn,  it  still  furnishes  pasture  that  is  much  relished, 
owing  to  the  abundance  of  the  fine  leaf  •  growth  amid 
the  relatively  light  production  of  matured  stems.  Such  a 
pasture,  held  in  reserve  for  autumn  grazing,  will  tend  to 
prolong  materially  its  season,  and  to  curtail  proportionately 
the  season  for  winter  feeding.  At  least  two  or  three 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  305 

seasons  are  required  to  bring  this  grass  to  a  maximum  of 
growth;  hence  it  is  illy  adapted  for  temporary  pastures. 
Owing  to  the  close,  firm  nature  of  the  sod  which  it  makes, 
it  will  better  resist  injury  from  severe  treading  than  any 
other  valuable  grass. 

Russian  brome  grass,  most  highly  valuable  on  prairie 
soils,  is  coming  to  be  much  prized  as  a  pasture  grass.  Its 
season  of  active  growth  is  longer  probably  than  that  of  any 
other  grass  grown  in  northern  areas.  It  grows  up  early  in 
the  spring  and  continues  to  grow  until  the  coming  of  severe 
frosts.  The  leaf  growth  is  very  vigorous  and  is  relatively 
abundant  and  no  grass  is  more  highly  relished  by  stock.  It 
will  stand  close  cropping  better  than  most  grasses  and 
when  once  established  is  not  easily  injured  by  treading. 
Its  carrying  power  under  favorable  conditions  is  probably 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  grass.  Its  growth  on  aver- 
age soils  is  greatly  stimulated  by  top  dressings  of  barnyard 
manure. 

Timothy,  king  among  the  hay  grasses,  is  more 
widely  grown  on  this  continent  than  any  other  grass,  but 
is  not  so  suitable  for  pasture  as  the  grasses  named  above, 
as  it  does  not  produce  so  much  growth  relatively  in  the 
autumn.  In  palatability  it  is  average.  Nevertheless,  it 
has  higher  adaptation  for  producing  temporary  pasture 
than  either  Kentucky  blue  or  Russian  brome  grass  as  it 
can  be  fully  established  in  a  single  season  though  sown 
with  a  nurse  crop.  Since  maximum  growth  with  timothy 
is  reached  in  a  relatively  short  period,  as  temporary  pas- 
ture it  is  usually  grown  with  clover. 

The  aim  should  be  to  graze  timothy  so  that  it  will 
not  throw  up  any  considerable  proportion  of  seed  stems. 
Should  it  do  so,  cutting  them  off  before  the  seed  matures 
with  the  mower  set  high  will  add  to  the  carrying  power 
of  the  pasture. 

Western  rye  grass,  frequently  called  slender  wheat 
grass,  is  probably  the  most  hardy  among  the  useful  grasses. 
It  is  grown  over  wide  areas  and  is  preeminently  the  grass 


306  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

for  dry  conditions  in  the  semi-arid  belt.  It  tends  somewhat 
to  grow  in  bunches  and  should  therefore  be  sown  some- 
what thickly.  Although  highly  nutritious,  it  is  not  quite  so 
much  relished  as  some  of  the  other  grasses.  Growth  is 
chiefly  made  in  the  early  part  of  the  season.  If  allowed 
to  throw  up  stems,  these  quickly  become  woody  and  are 
not  eaten  with  much  relish. 

Redtop,  valuable-  both  as  a  hay  and  pasture  plant,  is 
more  grown  for  pasture  in  some  of  the  central  and  southern 
states  than  in  those  north.  Though  not  so  valuable  in  the 
Gulf  states  as  Bermuda  grass,  it  is  grown  over  wider  areas 
much  further  north  than  would  be  suitable  for  that  grass.  In 
northern  areas  it  is  also  grown  for  pasture,  but  usually  in 
combination  with  other  grasses.  It  is  permanent  and  endur- 
ing and  eventually  makes  a  good  sod,  but  it  starts 
a  little  slowly  in  the  spring  and  also  after  it  has  been 
mown.  In  midsummer  it  loses  much  in  palatability.  In 
the  states  that  circle  around  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and 
also  in  other  areas,  it  is  much  esteemed  for  winter 
grazing  when  the  grazing  has  not  been  close  during  the 
summer  and  autumn. 

Bermuda  grass  is  a  creeping  perennial,  the  plants 
from  which  multiply  through  underground  rootstocks  and 
also  through  the  rooting  of  the  creeping  stems  where  the 
nodes  come  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Because  of  this 
habit  of  growth,  new  pastures  are  usually  obtained  through 
planting  the  stems  and  rootstems  at  certain  intervals.  It 
is  strictly  a  summer  grass  and  makes  all  its  growth  vir- 
tually in.  the  portion  of  the  year  when  frosts  are  absent. 
It  is  very  enduring  and  stands  grazing  well,  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  completely  remove  it  from  the  soil.  It  has  much 
power  to  produce,  even  on  worn  soils.  Reasonably  close 
grazing  during  the  season  of  growth  is  to  be  commended, 
as  even  slight  frosts  injure  the  palatability  of  the  grass. 

Chief  among  the  other  grasses,  useful  in  providing 
pasture  under  American  conditions,  are  Orchard  grass 
(Dactylis  glomerata),  Meadow  fescue  (Festuca  pratensis), 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  307 

and  Tall  Oat  grass  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum),  but  these 
are  not  so  extensively  grown  as  the  former. 

Orchard  grass  grows  best  in  various  centers  all  across 
the  continent  between  parallels  35°  and  45°  north  latitude. 
It  is  a  leafy  grass  and  a  vigorous  grower  on  good  soils, 
and  it  will  endure  shade  better  than  other  grasses.  It  has 
the  habit  of  growing  in  tussocks  which  may  be  modified 
by  growing  it  with  blue  grass.  It  is  not  so  palatable  as  blue 
grass,  but  is  more  productive.  In  the  spring  the  grazing 
should  be  measurably  close  to  keep  the  seed  stems  in  check. 
The  autumn  growth  is  usually  abundant  and  may  be  made 
to  furnish  much  grazing  for  winter  where  the  climates 
are  reasonably  mild. 

Meadow  fescue  is  hardy,  palatable  and  nutritious.  It 
has  been  grown  in  various  centers  widely  distant  from  one 
another.  It  is  slow  in  becoming  established  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  maximum  amount  of  pasture;  hence  it  is  better 
suited  for  permanent  than  for  temporary  pastures.  It 
grows  better  than  blue  grass  in  summer  and  has  more 
power  also  to  make  growth  in  the  cool  and  cold  weather 
of  autumn.  It  is  prized  for  winter  grazing  in  some  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  states. 

Tall  Oat  grass  will  grow  north,  south,  east  or  west, 
but  in  climates  not  really  severe  it  has  proved  of  highest 
value.  It  comes  up  very  early  in  the  spring,  grows  quickly 
and  is  persistent  in  growth.  The  foliage  is  abundant  but 
coarse  and,  owing  to  a  bitter  property  which  it  possesses,  is 
not  so  much  relished  as  several  other  grasses.  It  should 
be  kept  from  throwing  up  seed  stems,  which  of  course,  are 
less  palatatable  even  than  the  leaves. 

Three  other  grasses  are  capable  of  providing  much 
pasture,  but  they  are  so  difficult  of  eradication  that  it  is 
at  least  questionable  if  ever  they  should  be  sown  under 
arable  conditions.  These  are  Quack  grass  (Agropyrum  re- 
pens),  Johnson  grass  (Sorghum  halpense),  and  Crab 
grass  (Panicum  sanguinalis) , 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

Quack  grass  is  in  a  sense  a  scourge  to  the  farmers, 
especially  those  whose  lands,  naturally  rich  and  friable,  are 
infested  by  it,  owing  to  the  great  labor  involved  in  cleaning 
it  out  of  the  land.  Notwithstanding,  when  properly  man- 
aged, it  will  probably  furnish  more  grazing  during  the  sea- 
son than  any  other  grass  grown  in  the  locality.  In  semi- 
arid  regions  this  grass  may  have  a  useful  mission.  It  mul- 
tiplies chiefly  by  means  of  the  creeping  rootstocks  which  it 
sends  out  in  great  numbers  in  the  soil. 

Johnson  grass,  which  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  south- 
ern states,  cannot  endure  the  cold  winters  of  the  North. 
When  grazed  it  should  be  eaten  down  before  the  heads  are 
formed.  Heavy  pasturing  Has  the  effect  of  injuring  sub- 
sequent growth  for  a  time.  It  is  a  better  hay  than  a  pas- 
ture crop.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  of  eradication. 

Crab  grass  is  an  annual  which  infests  southern  soils. 
It  springs  up  luxuriantly  in  grain  fields  from  which  crops 
have  been  removed.  The  grazing  which  it  thus  furnishes 
is  frequently  considerable.  This  weed-like  grass  may  be 
grown,  it  is  said,  in  alternation  with  bur  clover,  the  former 
furnishing  grazing  in  winter  and  the  latter  in  summer.  The 
ground  is  simply  plowed  and  harrowed  between  the  crops, 
where  both  have  obtained  a  foothold. 

The  leading  clovers. — The  leading  clovers  for  pasture 
are  the  Common  or  Medium  Red  (Trifolium  pratense),  the 
Mammoth  (Trifolium  maximum'],  the  Alsike  (Trifolium 
hybridum),  the  White  (Trifolium  repens)  and  Alfalfa 
(Medicago  sativa).  These  are  probably  valuable  for  pas- 
ture in  the  order  named. 

Common  Red  clover,  is  now  grown  in  portions  of 
almost  every  state  in  the  Union.  The  great  clover  belt, 
however,  is  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  valley,  and  in  the 
higher  mountain  states  that  lie  to  the  west.  This  plant, 
biennial  or  perennial  according  to  the  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  under  which  it  is  produced,  grows  during  nearly 
the  entire  growing  season.  The  growth  is  more  vigorous 
and  persistent  when  the  plants  are  not  allowed  to  go  to 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  309 

seed,  and  they  will  also  live  for  a  longer  period.  No  other 
variety  of  clover  furnishes  so  much  pasture  in  one  season, 
and  none  is  so  highly  palatable. 

When  clover  is  very  rank  and  succulent,  cattle  and 
sheep  must  be  grazed  on  it  with  caution,  especially  at 
first,  otherwise  loss  may  result  from  bloating.  This  danger 
is  lessened,  ( I )  by  giving  the  animals  dry  food  before 
'turning  them  on  the  clover  to  graze;  (2)  by  leaving  them 
on  the  clover  subsequently  where  this  is  practicable;  (3) 
by  giving  them  access  to  some  dry  food  all  the  while  and 
(4)  by  so  arranging  that  some  kind  of  grass  will  be  pres- 
ent in  the  clover  in  that  degree  that  will  reduce  the  danger 
incurred  to  a  minimum.  Where  clover  is  not  grazed  too 
closely  in  the  autumn,  on  some  soils  it  reseeds  itself  and 
thus  perpetuates  its  growth. 

Mammoth  clover  will  grow  virtually  in  about  the  same 
areas  as  the  Common  Red  variety.  The  habit  of  growth, 
however,  in  the  two,  differs  considerably.  The  Mammoth 
requires  several  weeks  longer  to  reach  a  maximum  of 
growth,  does  not  grow  so  rapidly  after  midsummer,  and  is 
coarser  in  stem  than  the  former.  The  danger  to  cattle 
and  sheep  from  bloat  is  much  the  same  as  with -the  Com- 
mon Red.  Close  pasturing  in  the  late  autumn  is  usually 
more  or  less  harmful  to  all  clovers,  but  not  equally  so  under 
all  conditions.  Where  seed  is  much  grown  from  either  the 
Common  Red  or  Mammoth  clovers,  they  are  frequently 
grazed  closely  for  a  time  after  growth  has  begun.  Such 
grazing  is  not  only  grateful  to  the  stock,  but  it  has  been 
found  favorable  to  abundant  seed  production. 

Alsike  clover  is  perennial  in  its  growth  and  increas- 
ingly so  as  the  conditions  become  more  favorable.  It 
grows  best  in  moist  soils.  It  is  even  more  hardy  than  the 
Common  Red  and  is  fully  as  wide  in  its  distribution. 
Though  of  finer  leaf  growth  than  the  Common  Red,  it  is 
not  more  palatable,  takes  longer  to  attain  a  maximum  of 
growth,  and  makes  less  growth  relatively  late  in  the  season. 


3IO  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

Small  White  clover  has  a  wider  distribution  than  any 
other  variety.  It  seldom  requires  resowing  on  soils  where 
it  has  once  grown  unless  where  sown  for  seed  production. 
It  is  seldom  grown  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  pro- 
vide pasture.  Spontaneously  as  it  were,  it  grows  along 
with  blue  grass  and  some  other  grasses,  and  is  most  in  evi- 
dence in  moist  seasons.  It  is  reasonably  palatable,  but 
less  so  probably  than  the  clovers  referred  to  above, 
although  of  finer  growth,  and  it  is  charged  with  inducing 
slobbering  in  horses  that  graze  upon  it  in  the  early  summer. 
This  useful  and  harmless  weed-like  plant  considerably  in- 
creases the  producing  capacity  of  pastures  in  which  it 
grows. 

Alfalfa  grows  on  certain  soils  in  nearly  all  the  states 
and  in  nearly  all  the  provinces  of  Canada.  It  is  rather  a 
hay  than  a  pasture  plant  as  it  does  not  stand  grazing  well, 
and  very  frequently  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep  upon 
it  is  attended  with  loss.  The  danger  from  bloat  is  not 
present  when  it  is  grazed  with  swine  and  horses.  When 
grown  for  grazing  the  aim  should  be  to  grow  some  grass 
along  with  it  as  Orchard  grass  or  Russian  brome,  or  to 
grow  it  as  a  factor  of  a  pasture  more  or  less  permanent. 
The  grazing  of  alfalfa  usually  shortens  its  life  term,  though 
the  reverse  is  frequently  true  of  clover. 

The  chief  of  the  clovers  of  less  importance  in  pro- 
viding grazing  than  those  referred  to  above,  are  Crimson 
clover,  (Trifolium  incarnatum) ,  Japan  clover  (Lespedesa 
striata)  and  Bur  clover  (Medicago  maculata}.  Sainfoin 
(Onobrychis  sativa)  may  prove  highly  valuable  in  fur- 
nishing pasture,  but  it  has  not  been  grown  on  areas  of  any 
considerable  extent  in  this  country. 

Crimson  clover,  usually  sown  in  the  summer  or  early 
autumn  is  gNrown  chiefly  in  the  Central  Atlantic  states  and 
in  some  states  westward  and  southward  from  these.  This 
plant,  which  lives  but  one  year,  makes  much  and  quick 
growth  under  congenial  conditions,  but  it  cannot  endure 
severe  winters  unless  protected  by  snow.  It  may  be 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  311 

grown  alone  or  along  with  other  winter  crops  that  will 
provide  grazing,  as  vetches  or  rye.  It  may  be  grazed  in 
the  autumn  or  spring  or  at  both  seasons  but  close  grazing 
in  the  autumn  frequently  endangers  the  life  of  the  plants. 
They  furnish  grazing  very  early  in  the  spring.  Crimson 
clover  is  more  grown  as  a  fertilizer  than  as  a  pasture. 

Japan  clover  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  southern  states. 
It  is  an  annual  but,  like  White  clover,  it  has  much  power 
to  reseed  itself,  and  thus  to  remain  in  soil  where  it  has  once 
been  grown.  It  is  much  prized  as  a  pasture  plant  in 
considerable  areas  of  the  South,  whether  grown  alone  or 
in  yearly  alternation  along  with  such  plants  as  turf  oats 
and  sand  vetches.  The  oats  and  vetches  furnish  spring 
grazing,  and  the  Japan  clover  grazing  in  the  summer  and 
early  autumn.  Stock  do  not  take  kindly  to  it  at  first,  but 
soon  become  fond  of  it.  If  allowed  to  form  seed  before 
the  grazing  begins,  it  is  less  relished  than  if  grazed  earlier. 
It  starts  late  in  the  spring  and  is  easily  injured  by  autumn 
frosts. 

Bur  clover,  like  Japan  clover,  is  grown  only  in  the 
South.  Unlike  Japan  clover,  which  furnishes  grazing  in 
the  summer  and  early  autumn,  Bur  clover  furnishes  the 
same  in  the  winter  and  •  early  spring.  It  has  sometimes 
been  grown  for  successive  years  in  alternation  with  Crab 
grass,  the  latter  being  used  for  hay  or  pasture.  Both 
have  much  power  to  reseed  themselves.  Bur  clover  is 
not  highly  palatable,  but  in  time  animals  become  accus- 
tomed to  it.  It  is  most  relished  when  the  plants  are 
young. 

Plants  of  the  Brassica  family. — The  most  important 
of  these,  beyond  all  comparison,  grown  for  pasture  in 
America,  is  the  Dwarf  Essex  rape  plant.  To  a  limited 
extent  kale  is  grown  for  the  same  purpose  especially  on 
the  slopes  of  western  Oregon  and  Washington,  beside 
the  Pacific.  Cabbage  is  also  grown  to  a  very  limited  ex- 
tent to  provide  grazing  for  sheep.  When  fed  to  other 
stock,  it  is  more  as  soiling  food  than  as  grazing. 


312  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Dwarf  Essex  rape,  grown  on  rich  soils  in  all  the  states 
and  in  all*  the  provinces  of  Canada,  is  sown  alone,  broad- 
cast, or  in  rows  and  cultivated,  along  with  the  small  cereal 
grains,  or  in  the  last  cultivation  given  to  corn.  After  the 
grain  and  corn  respectively  are  harvested,  the  rape  pro- 
vides abundant  food  according  to  the  soil.  It  may  be 
grazed  by  any  kind  of  stock,  except  cows  in  milk,  and  these 
also  may  be  grazed  upon  it  for  a  short  time  after  one  or 
both  daily  milkings,  but  if  allowed  to  remain  on  it  long,  the 
milk  will  be  tainted.  The  plants  may  be  grazed  as  soon  as 
they  will  furnish  much  feed  and  will  grow  again,  but  the 
largest  amount  of  grazing  will  be  obtained,  as  a  rule, 
when  growth  in  the  plants  is  nearly  completed  before  the 
pasturing  begins. 

The  rape  plant  is  greatly  relished  by  cattle,  sheep, 
swine  and  horses.  It  is  excellent  for  producing  growth, 
fat,  and  also  milk.  These  properties,  along  with  its  pro- 
ductiveness and  wide  adaptation,  make  it  the  most  valuable 
fodder  plant  that  has  come  into,  general  use  in  this  country 
during  recent  years.  It  furnishes  excellent  grazing  for 
calves  and  older  cattle,  but  the  latter,  when  feeding  on  it, 
cause  considerable  waste  through  treading  down  the 
plants.  For  fattening  sheep,  no  grazing  is  equal  to  it.  It 
may  be  made  to  furnish  good  grazing  for  swine  through 
all  the  growing  season,  except  during  the  first  six  or  eight 
weeks  of  growth  subsequently  to  the  "opening  of  spring. 
Horses  are  fond  of  rape  but,  like  heavy  cattle,  they  injure 
it  by  treading.  It  furnishes  food  too  succulent  for  horses 
at  work. 

Cattle  or  sheep  should  never  be  turned  in  to  graze 
on  rape  while  hungry,  lest  they  should  take  harm  through 
bloating.  The  aim  should  be,  when  either  are  grazed 
on  it,  to  have  a  well-grown  pasture  at  all  times  accessible, 
as  this  supplemented  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  salt,  tends 
materially  to  prevent  and  also  to  lessen  scouring.  When 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  313 

once  turned  into  graze,  it  is  the  common  practice  with  many 
not  to  hinder  freedom  of  access  to  the  rape  again  until  it  is 
all  grazed  down. 

Grain  may  be  fed  to  cattle  or  sheep  on  rape,  but  such 
feeding  is  not  indispensable  with  them  as  it  is  with  swine 
that  are  being  grazed  on  it.  The  grazing  may  be  continued 
until  the  coming  of  hard  frost,  but  in  some  instances 
digestive  troubles  arise  from  grazing  sheep  in  the  early 
morning  on  rape  covered  with  white  rime.  Feeding  them 
on  grain  previously  is  a  safeguard. 

Kale  is  frequently  grazed  in  the  spring  in  latitudes 
with  mild  winters,  the  kale  having  been  started  the  previous 
autumn.  The  grazing  of  cabbage  by  sheep  may  begin  as 
soon  as  growth  is  completed,  and  may  continue  later 
than  in  the  case  of  rape.  The  amount  of  good  grazing  that 
may  thus  be  furnished  by  an  acre  of  cabbage  is  very  large. 

The  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums. — In 
some  localities  the  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums 
are  frequently  used  to  provide  grazing,  more  especially  in 
areas  where,  because  of  drouth  or  for  other  reasons,  cul- 
tivated pastures  are  not  so  productive.  Sorghums  may  be 
grown  for  pasture  wherever  corn  can  be  successfully  grown, 
but  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  including  Kafir  corn, 
Jerusalem  corn,  Milo  maize  and  Durra,  can  only  be  grown 
where  the  summer  temperatures  are  warmer  than  those 
which  prevail  in  the  northern  states  and  Canada.  Pearl 
millet  is  somewhat  akin  to  these  in  its  adaptation  and  also 
in  its  habits  of  growth. 

When  grazed  by  cattle,  the  grazing  should  be  deferred 
until  the  plants  are  old  enough  so  as  not  to  pull  out  of 
the  ground  while  being  grazed.  The  aim  should  be  to 
keep  them  grazed  down  so  closely  that  the  grazing  will 
not  be  greatly  injured  by  the  animals.  This  result  is  sure 
to  follow  when  the  stalks  become  so  far  advanced  that 
they  break  down  when  the  cattle  walk  through  them.  Such 
grazing  is  not  so  palatable  as  some  kinds  of  grass,  and 
yet  cattle  are  fond  of  it.  In  some  instances  serious  loss 


314  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

has  occurred  from  grazing  both  saccharine  and  non-sac- 
charine sorghum  by  cattle.  This  it  is  thought  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  poisonous  principle  known  as  prussic  acid, 
which  collects  in  the  plants  usually,  if  not  always,  when 
the  growth  has  been  checked  by  drouth.  These  results,  in 
some  instances  serious,  are  more  frequent  when  grazing 
down  the  second  growth  but  they  are  not  entirely  confined 
to  such  grazing. 

Sheep  are  relatively  better  adapted  than  cattle  'to  such 
grazing.  With  sheep  the  grazing  may  begin  at  an  earlier 
age.  They  may  be  so  grazed  that  but  little  waste  will  follow. 
None  of  the  sorghums  are  so  much  relished  by  sheep  as 
rape  or  certain  of  the  grasses.  Nor  do  they  produce  so 
much  increase  in  the  animals.  But  they  furnish  a  large 
amount  of  grazing  relatively  in  proportion  to  the  area 
grazed. 

In  the  central  Mississippi  states,  these  plants  are  fre- 
quently grazed  by  swine.  Some  writers  praise  them  for 
such  a  use,  but  it  is  probably  true,  that,  as  with  sheep,  the 
grazing  is  not  so  completely  satisfactory  as  that  furnished 
by  alfalfa,  clover,  rape  and  certain  of  the  cereals,  but  such 
grazing  may  be  furnished  quickly  in  warm,  dry  weather 

These  plants  may  also  be  grazed  by  horses  and  mules 
but  to  such  grazing  there  is  the  objection  that  the  plants 
may  be  injured  by  treading.  No  instances  of  loss  have  been 
reported  from  grazing  horses,  sheep  or  swine  upon  the 
sorghums. 

Corn  may  be  grazed  when  sown  on  the  broadcast  plan, 
but  when  so  grown  it  is  best  grazed  by  sheep ;  larger  ani- 
mals injure  it  much  by  treading  and  breaking  it  down.  If 
sheep  are  turned  in  to  graze  upon  it  when  it  is  about  a  foot 
high  or  even  higher,  they  will  get  much  grazing  from  it, 
but  after  it  has  reached  the  first  joint  it  will  not  grow  up 
again  when  grazed  down.  In  some  localities  Squaw  corn  or 
some  other  small  variety  is  grown  and  fed  off  by  sheep  or 
swine.  In  the  northwestern  states  this  method  of  fattening 
sheep  and  swine,  especially  the  former,  is  attaining  some 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  315 

popularity.  Rape  sown  along  with  the  corn  at  the  last 
cultivation  given  to  it  improves  the  grazing. 

Pasture  from  the  small  cereals. — Pasture  is  frequently 
obtained  from  the  small  cereals  sown  singly  or  in  combina- 
tion. Of  these  winter  rye  is  more  commonly  sown  alone, 
and  because  of  its  importance  in  grazing  will  be  discussed 
separately.  In  some  instances  winter  wheat  is  grazed  in 
the  winter  season  with  benefit  to  both  the  stock  and  wheat. 
Such  crops  as  winter  vetches  may  also  be  sown  alone  in  the 
early  autumn  to  provide  early  spring  grazing  for  all  classes 
of  farm  stock.  But  such  grazing,  even  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, must  be  conducted  with  a  prudent  caution  or  the 
grazing  may  injure  the  grain.  On  stiff  clays  it  cannot  be 
done  at  all.  The  same  is  true  of  the  grazing  of  spring-sown 
crops  by  sheep  in  the  spring  on  the  northwestern  prairies. 
In  seasons  unusually  favorable  to  growth,  such  grazing 
benefits  the  crop  but  if  it  is  continued  too  long  it  will  lessen 
yields. 

On  the  western  and  northwestern  prairies  spring  grains 
are  sometimes  sown  in  combination  to  provide  grazing  when 
grass  pastures  are  not  available.  The  choice  of  varieties 
may  depend  somewhat  on  relative  cheapness.  A  mixture, 
however,  provides  more  grazing  than  a  single  grain,  and 
also  tends  more  or  less  to  prolong  the  grazing.  These 
grains  sown  thickly  and  in  the  usual  way,  are  ready  to 
graze  as  soon  as  the  grazing  is  abundant.  Such  pastures 
have  highest  adaptation  for  milk  production,  owing  to 
their  succulence.  They  should  be  grazed  so  closely  that  no 
stems  can  be  formed,  otherwise  the  grazing  will  be  lessened 
and  also  the  palatability.  Sowing  the  seeds  of  grasses  and 
clovers  with  these  mixtures  still  farther  prolongs  the  graz- 
ing. 

Pastures  may  be  grown  from  the  small  cereals  for  sheep 
singly  or  in  combination,  and  in  a  succession  that  may  be 
made  to -cover  the  entire  season  of  growth.  When  sown 
alone  these  pastures  may  consist  of  winter  rye,  winter 
vetches  and  winter  oats  where  the  winters  are  not  too 


3l6  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

severe.  When  sown  in  combination,  the  mixtures  may 
consist  of  winter  rye  or  turf  oats  and  sand  vetches,  of  peas 
and  oats,  and  of  several  of  the  small  grains  sown  together. 

The  winter  crops  are  of  course  sown  in  the  autumn 
and  the  other  crops  in  the  spring.  These  may  be  sown  in 
various  alternations  with  each  other  and  also  with  corn, 
sorghum  and  rape,  more  especially  the  latter.  Thus  sown, 
at  least  two  crops  of  grazing  per  year  may  be  grown  on  the 
same  land.  The  grazing  should  begin  reasonably  early,  on 
the  principle  that  sheep  prefer  succulent  grazing.  It  should 
not  be  deferred  so  long  that  the  pasture  will  be  seriously 
harmed  from  the  tramping  while  being  grazed.  Cropping 
off  the  plants  thus  early  tends  to  increase  the  stooling. 

The  small  cereals  more  commonly  grown  to  provide 
grazing  for  swine,  are  winter  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas  and 
vetches.  These  are  sown  singly  or  in  mixtures.  The  more 
common  of  the  mixtures  are,  barley  and  oats  and  rye  and 
winter  vetches.  The  grazing  of  these  plants  should  begin 
while  they  are  still  young,  at  least  before  the  time  of 
forming  the  seed  bearing  stems,  except  in  the  case  of  peas. 
These  are  allowed  to  near  maturity  before  being  grazed. 
The  grazing  of  winter  rye  and  barley  is  also  sometimes 
carried  into  the  maturing  stages  of  the  grain,  but  such 
grazing  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  in 
all  instances. 

Winter  rye  for  pasture. — Winter  rye  is,  beyond  all 
comparison,  the  most  valuable  of  the  small  cereals  in  fur- 
nishing pasture,  as  it  can  be  grown  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  the  hardiest  of  the 
cereals,  will  grow  on  poor  soils,  comes  earliest  in  the 
spring  and  may  under  many  conditions,  be  made  to  fur- 
nish grazing  both  in  the  autumn  and  spring.  But  when 
sown  quite  early  in  the  autumn,  under  some  conditions, 
it  becomes  affected  with  leaf  rust,  and  when  sown  too  late, 
where  the  winter  climate  is  rigorous,  the  plants  become  so 
weakened  frequently,  that  the  growth  in  spring  is  not  of 
much  value.  Notwithstanding,  under  all  conditions  where 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  317 

winter  rye  is  sown  for  pasture  in  the  autumn,  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  some  kind  of  a  crop  after  the  rye  the  following 
season. 

The  practice  of  sowing  winter  rye  in  the  spring  to  pro 
vide  grazing  is  not  to  be  commended,  but  it  is  admissible 
when  the  seeds  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  are  sown  at  the 
same  time  with  a  view  to  prolong  the  grazing.  Winter  rye 
may  be  grazed  by  horses,  mules,  cattle  of  all  kinds  and  ages, 
and  sheep  and  swine.  It  is  made  to  supply  pasture  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  any  other  cereal  when  this  is  short  from 
other  sources. 

Although  rye  is  frequently  grazed  in  the  autumn,  the 
results  are  variable.  -In  some  instances  close  autumn  graz- 
ing tends  to  weaken  growth  in  the  spring ;  in  others,  it  does 
not  seem  to  harm  it.  The  difference  may  arise  from  a  dif- 
ference in  winter  temperatures.  When  sown  very  early,  it  is 
safer  to  pasture  the  rye  in  the  fall.  When  sown  later,  but 
not  in  time  to  make  too  advanced  a  growth  in  the  autumn, 
more  grazing  will  usually  be  obtained  in  the  spring,  if  the 
rye  is  not  grazed  in  the  fall. 

Grazing  in  the  spring  should  begin  as  soon  as  growth 
has  really  started.  The  aim  should  be  to  graze  the  rye  some- 
what closely,  for  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  form  heads,  the 
grazing  becomes  woody  and  distasteful  to  live  stock.  Rye 
will  furnish  grazing  for  a  much  longer  period  when  eaten 
closely  than  if  not  so  grazed.  In  many  instances  the  crop 
is  grazed  for  a  time  in  the  spring,  and  the  stock  are  then 
removed  so  as  to  allow  the  plants  to  mature  a  crop.  Good 
crops  of  grain  are  thus  frequently  obtained  when  the  graz- 
ing is  not  carried  too  far. 

When  cows  in  milk  are  grazed  on  winter  rye  and  the 
grazing  is  abundant,  the  milk  will  be  possessed  of  an  odor 
and  taste  more  or  less  offensive.  This  may  be  avoided  by 
only  allowing  cows  to  graze  on  the  rye  for  a  short  period 
after  the  time  for  milking.  Owing  to  the  succulence  of 
young  rye  and  to  its  tendency  to  relax  the  bowels,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  feed  more  or  less  of  grain,  when  practicable, 


FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

to  animals  that  graze  upon  it.  It  furnishes  excellent  grazing 
in  the  early  spring  for  ewes  that  are  nursing  lambs  and  also 
for  brood  sows  nursing  their  young. 

The  grazing  of  pastures.— The  grazing  of  pastures 
should  not  begin  as  a  rule  until  pasturing  can  be  done  with- 
out poaching  the  land,  until  the  grass  or  other  crop  has  made 
sufficient  growth  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  animals  without 
an  excess  of  expended  energy  in  supplying  the  same,  and 
until  it  has  parted  with  an  excess  of  succulence. 

The  injury  from  poaching  is  found,  in  part,  in  making 
the  surface  uneven,  in  part,  in  destroying  some  of  the  plants 
by  pushing  them  down  into  the  soil,  and  in  part,  in  the  ex- 
cessive hardening  of  the  soil  after  the  excess  of  moisture 
has  left  it  for  the  time  being.  Clay  soils  suffer  the  most 
from  poaching  and  they  suffer  increasingly  with  the  lack 
of  firmness  in  the  sod,  with  increase  in  the  excess  of  mois- 
ture in  the  soil,  with  increase  in  the  clay  content  in  the 
same,  and  with  increase  in  the  poaching. 

All  excess  of  energy  expended  by  animals  in  supplying 
their  needs  when  grazing  means  loss.  "  It  means  the  utiliza- 
tion of  unnecessary  energy  to  enable  the  animal  to  graze. 
The  expenditure  of  energy  in  excess  of  what  may  be  nec- 
essary to  keep  the  animal  in  good  health  while  grazing  is  ex- 
cessive, and  should  be  avoided.  It  should  be  avoided  for  the 
further  reason,  that  it  involves  unnecessary  injury  through 
needless  treading  on  the  plants. 

Grass  or  other  grazing  is  possessed  of  an  excess  of  suc- 
culence when  it  induces  a  condition  of  the  bowels  so  lax  as 
to  hinder  increase  in  whole  or  in  part.  That  excess  of  succu- 
lence varies  in  plants  themselves  with  the  advancement  of 
the  same  in  growth,  and  with  the  character  of  the  season. 
Grain  pastures  would  seem  to  be  more  succulent  when  quite 
young  as  a  rule  than  grass  pastures.  Pastures  that  may  phy- 
sic animals  at  an  early  stage  to  the  extent  of  preventing  all 
increase,  may  lead  to  rapid  increase  at  a  later  stage  of  devel- 
opment by  which  time  they  have  parted  with  much  of  their 


FOOD     FROM     PASTURES  319 

succulence.  Some  seasons,  pastures  have  much  more  succu- 
lence than  in  other  seasons,  owing  to  a  difference  in  the 
amount  of  rainfall.  The  greater  the  degree  of  moisture  in 
the  air  also,  the  more  relatively  of  succuhnce  will  the 
pastures  possess 

Excess  of  succulence,  however,  is  not  to  be  measured 
alone  by  the  degree  of  the  succulence.  That  degree  of  suc- 
culence which  removes  an  unduly  dry  condition  from  the 
faeces,  is  not  excessive  or  harmful,  but  helpful.  The  trained 
eye  quickly  detects  what  is  correct  or  otherwise  in  such  con- 
dition. Succulence  is  excessive  when  it  leads  to  a  condition 
of  the  bowels  so  lax  as  to  hinder  production  in  milk,  meat  or 
labor.  The  degree  of  succulence  in  pastures  that  would  be 
best  suited  for  milk  production  would  be  excessive  for  meat 
production,  and  that  which  is  best  suited  for  meat  production 
may  be  excessive  for  the  best  results  from  labor.  This  ex- 
plains in  part  at  least  why  summer  pastures,  green  and  suc- 
culent, are  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  milch  cows,  and  why, 
when  they  become  unduly  dry,  supplementary  succulent  food 
is  necessary  in  order  to  properly  maintain  the  milk  flow.  It 
explains  why  pastures  well  matured  make  beef  much  more 
quickly  than  pastures  less  matured  and  more  succulent.  It 
also  throws  light  upon  the  necessity  for  feeding  reasonabl" 
dry  food  to  horses  at  hard  labor. 

The  aim  should  be  not  to  graze  pastures  close  at  any  sea- 
son of  the  year,  for  the  reason,  first,  that  when  thus  grazed, 
growth  is  hindered  by  reducing  too  much  the  breathing  ca- 
pacity of  the  plant  through  the  leaves,  and  by  removing  the 
shade  and  protection  furnished  to  the  roots  by  the  grass 
blades.  When  this  covering  is  removed,  the  sapping  of 
moisture  is  so  far  accelerated  by  the  sun  and  wind.  This 
loss  of  moisture  increases  relatively  with  increase  in  dry- 
ness  of  the  climate.  There  is  also  loss  of  energy  in  search- 
ing for  food  by  animals  that  are  being  oastured  in  order  to 
supply  their  needs 

Of  course,  the  closeness  of  the  grazing  cannot  always 
be  regulated.  When  pasture  is  abundant,  animals  will 


32O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

sometimes  graze  close  where  growth  is  least  luxuriant,  be- 
cause the  pasture  there  is  less  coarse  than  in  other  parts 
and  also  probably  sweeter,  while  they  will  not  graze  at  all. 
or  but  little,  on  the  ranker  portions  of  the  grass.  Sheep  es- 
pecially, are  much  prone  to  graze  thus.  Notwithstanding, 
while  the  less  productive  portions  are  being  grazed,  grass  is 
accumulating  in  the  ungrazed  portions  of  the  fields,  and  this 
will  be  consumed  readily  when  that  season  comes,  which  it 
usually  does  every  year,  when  the  close  grazed  portions  of 
the  field  have  practically  ceased  to  produce  grazing. 

In  the  autumn,  the  aim  should  be  to  avoid  grazing  so 
close  that  fields  will  be  left  without  any  winter  protection. 
This,  of  course,  is  more  important  in  .climates  where  the 
frost  is  intense,  where  the  fields  are  much  swept  with  bleak 
winds  when  bare,  and  where  the  snowfall  is  light.  When 
the  grass  covering  has  been  entirely  removed  in  the  fall, 
the  blades  are  slow  in  starting  in  the  spring,  more  espe- 
cially where  frosts  are  intense,  and  the  early  grazing  is  less 
suitable  to  the  needs  of  plants  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
(See  p.  319.)  There  are  instances,  however,  in  which  want 
of  grazing  would  result  in  the  smothering  of  the  plants 
to  their  complete  destruction,  especially  where  the  snowfall 
is  heavy,  and  there  are  other  instances  where  the  unre- 
moved  covering  would  be  so  much,  that  it  would  check  the 
growth  of  the  grass  in  spring  even  though  it  should  not 
be  killed  by  the  covering. 

Whether  different  classes  of  animals  should  be  grazed 
together  on  the  same  pasture  is  a  disputed  question.  Many 
are  opposed  to  it.  Notwithstanding,  it  would  seem  to  be 
a  question  largely  of  conditions.  When  the  pastures  are  not 
abundant  sheep,  for  instance,  should  not  graze  with  cattle. 
Because  of  their  habit  of  close  cropping,  they  will  get  the 
lion's  share  of  the  pasture,  and  through  their  habit  of  tread- 
ing much  while  grazing,  would  render  the  grass  more  dis- 
tasteful to  the  cattle.  But  when  the  pasture  is  abundant 
through  all  the  season,  grazing  different  classes  of  animals 
together  is  probably  an  advantage,  as  one  class  from 


FOOD    FROM   PASTURES  321 

choice  eats  portions  that  the  other  class  will  reject.  A  few 
sheep  on  such  a  pasture  will  aid  materially  in  checking  the 
growth  of  weeds,  and  a  few  goats  in  checking  the  growth 
of  bushes,  should  they  be  present. 

The  care  of  pastures. — The  care  of  pastures  has  ref- 
erence: (i)  To  the  extent  of  the  depasturing;  (2)  to  pro- 
tection from  weeds;  (3)  to  improvement  by  drainage;  (4) 
to  improvement  by  fertilization;  (5)  to  improvement  by  a 
renewal  of  the  grasses.  Due  attention  to  these  matters  will 
greatly  increase  the  carrying  power  of  pastures.  Very  fre- 
quently pastures  are  kept  eaten  down  too  bare.  Usually  the 
power  of  plants  to  grow  for  the  time  being  is  crippled  in 
proportion  as  the  top  growth  is  removed  and  In  proportion 
to  the  earliness  of  such  removal.  Surface  evaporation  is 
always  more  rapid  in  proportion  as  the  covering  is  removed 
from  the  soil,  whether  *that  covering  consists  of  living  or 
dead  vegetation.  Close  grazing  injures  growth  because  it 
makes  unnececsary  treading  by  the  hoofs  of  the  animals 
grazing,  and  when  winter  comes,  it  injures  through  undue 
exposure  of  the  vital  power  of  the  plants.  It  is  perhaps 
an  open  question  whether  close  grazing  injures  most 
the  animals  that  graze  or  the  pastures  that  they  graze  upon. 
If  pastures  must  be  grazed  closely,  such  grazing  should 
take  place  in  the  spring  rather  than  in  the  autumn,  as  then 
the  fields  so  grazed  may  reclothe  themselves  before  the 
advent  of  winter. 

Weeds  injure  pastures  by  drawing  on  their  fertility  for 
no  useful  end,  by  excessive  shading  and  by  crowding. 
Even  bushes  and  shrubs  become  weeds  in  pastures  when 
they  hinder  the  growth  of  grass.  Weeds  that  grow  burs 
which  adhere  to  stock  are  especially  annoying.  These  evils 
may  be  mitigated  by  the  free  use  of  the  field  mower  and  in 
some  instances  of  the  scythe  and  spud.  Annuals  and  bi- 
ennials may  thus  be  prevented  from  going  to  seed,  and  in 
some  instances  perennials  may  be  thus  destroyed,  but  not 
in  all.  Dense  rooted  grasses  like  Kentucky  blue  and  Rus- 
sian brome  will  crowd  out  many  kinds  of  weeds  through 
the  density  of  their  root  growth. 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

The  possible  improvement  of  pastures  by  means  of 
drainage  is  only  limited  by  the  opportunity  furnished  for 
making  the  drainage  complete.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  benefits  that  accrue  from  it:  (i)  Drainage  alone  may 
completely  change  the  character  of  the  production,  the 
change  being  from  grass  less  valuable  to  that  more  valu- 
able, because  of  increased  growth,  higher  palatability  and 
superior  nutrition;  (2)  it  may  prolong  the  season  of  pas- 
turing more  or  less  each  year;  (3)  the  harbor  for  parasites, 
so  prejudicial  to  the  sheep  industry  where  stagnant  water 
abounds  is  so  far  removed;  (4)  the  injury  from  poaching 
is  reduced,  if  not  entirely  obviated.  The  methods  of  drain- 
ing will  not  be  discussed  here,  but  it  should  be  added  that 
the  benefits  accruing  from  draining  the  wet  places  in  pas- 
tures are  usually  far  beyond  the  cost  of  the  work. 

But  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  improvement 
of  pastures  on  this  continent  through  the  medium  of  ferti- 
lization, owing  largely,  it  would  seem,  to  an  extensively  pre- 
vailing idea  that  more  profit  will  result  from  applying  fer- 
tilizer to  other  crops.  The  idea  would  not  seem  to  be  well 
grounded,  especially  where  temporary  pastures  are  grown. 
Dressings  of  farmyard  manures  and  also  of  commercial 
fertilizers  stimulate  growth  in  the  roots  as  well  as  in  the 
leaves  and  stems,  consequently  when  the  pastures  are  bro- 
ken up  the  humus  in  the  soil  is  proportionately  increased. 
Farmyard  manures  also  act  as  a  mulch,  and  the  fresher  and 
more  bulky  the  manure  and  the  more  of  it  applied  up  to  a 
certain  limit,  the  more  beneficial  will  be  the  result  to  the 
pasture.  A  threefold  benefit  results  from  applying  farmyard 
manure  thus.  The  wisdom  of  aiming  to  apply  as  large  a 
proportion  of  the  fertilizer  as  can  be  made  available  to 
pastures  is  to  be  commended. 

Grasses  may  in  many  instances  be  renewed  in  pastures 
without  breaking  them  up  and  resowing.  This  question  is 
discussed  in  the  book  on  "Grasses"  by  the  author  (p.  392), 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred 


CHAPTER  XV. 
FOOD  FROM  FIELD  ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 

Field  roots  are  distinguished  from  tubers  first,  in  pro- 
ducing but  one  bulb  or  root,  whereas  tubers  produce  sev- 
eral; second,  in  usually  making  much  of  the  growth  above 
ground,  whereas  tubers  grow  wholly  under  the  soil;  and 
third,  in  larger  average  production  than  can  be  obtained 
from  tubers.  They  also  differ  in  chemical  composition. 
Roots  are  relatively  richer  in  protein  and  tubers  in  starch, 
and  the  starch  in  the  two  is  found  under  different  condi- 
tions. 

The  value  of  field  roots  and  tubers  in  furnishing  food 
for  live  stock  has  not  been  appreciated  in  the  past  by  the 
growers  of  live  stock  in  the  United  States  as  it  has  been  by 
the  growers  of  the  same  in  Great  Britain  and  Canada.  The 
greater  amount  of  hand  labor  required  in  growing  them  as 
compared  with  corn,  has  led  to  the  centering  of  attention  on 
the  growing  of  corn.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  remains,  that 
American  supremacy  in  growing  live  stock  is  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  extent  to  which  field  roots  shall  be  fed  to 
them  while  in  process  of  development.  No  other  food  ad- 
junct has  yet  been  found  that  will  equal  field  roots  in  secur- 
ing the  development  of  large  frames  and  in  covering  them 
abundantly  with  fleshy  tissue.  The  American  exhibitor  of 
cattle  and  sheep  must  continue  to  import  his  leading  prize 
winners  from  Great  Britain  and  Canada  until  he  feeds  his 
young  animals  more  largely  on  field  roots. 

Those  who  have  investigated  with  reference  to  the 
comparative  cost  of  nutrients  in  corn  and  field  roots  re- 
spectively, have  concluded,  and  correctly,  that  nutrients  in 
corn  can  be  grown  in  greater  quantity  and  much  more 
cheaply  under  average  conditions  than  in  field  roots.  But 
when  the  conclusion  is  reached,  that  in  consequence,  the  net 

323 


FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

returns  from  an  acre  of  field  roots  cannot  be  made  as  large 
relatively  or  as  profitable  as  those  from  an  acre  of  corn 
under  some  conditions  of  growth,  that  conclusion  may  be 
safely  challenged.  The  favorable  influence  that  the  moder- 
ate or  even  light  feeding  of  field  roots  exercises  on  the  di- 
gestion of  the  animals  (see  p.  51),  gives  field  roots  a  value 
far  in  excess  of  the  nutrients  which  they  contain. 

The  following  conclusions  with  reference  to  the  rela- 
tive value  of  these  and  of  corn  will  probably  be  found  cor- 
rect: (i)  That  in  the  main,  under  United  States  condi- 
tions, corn  should  be  made  the  leading  food  crop  for  live 
stock  rather  than  roots,  but  in  some  parts  of  Canada,  be- 
cause of  climatic  conditions,  the  reverse  should  be  true.  (2) 
That  corn  has  much  higher  adaptation  for  fattening  than 
field  roots,  hence  they  should  be  fed  sparingly  if  fed  at  all 
to  animals  being  fattened.  (3)  That  field  roots  are  so  well 
adapted  to  milk  production  that,  under  many  conditions, 
they  may  be  fed  for  such  a  use,  even  in  conjunction  with 
corn  and  more  especially  with  dry  corn  fodder.  (4)  That 
field  roots  have  higher  adaptation  for  young  animals  than 
corn,  and  that  in  consequence,  the  farmer  should  aim  to 
provide  young  animals  with  such  food  even  in  areas  well 
suited  to  the  growing  of  corn. 

The  root  crops  discussed  are:  (i)  Mangels,  (2)  sugar 
beets,  (3)  rutabagas  and  turnips  and  (4)  carrots.  The  tu- 
bers dwelt  upon  are :  (i)  Irish  potatoes,  (2)  sweet  pota- 
toes, (3)  artichokes  and  (4)  cassava.  The  miscellaneous 
crops,  included  in  the  discussion  are:  (i)  Cabbage,  (2) 
pumpkins,  (3)  squash  and  (4)  peanuts.  The  tops  of  roots 
and  tubers  are  also  considered  with  reference  to  their  feed- 
ing value. 

Mangels. — Mangels  may  be  successfully  grown  in 
some  portion  of  every  state  in  the  Union  and  of  every 
province  of  Canada.  Although  they  grow  best  where  the 
temperatures  are  moderate  and  the  climate  is  reasonably 
moist,  they  will  stand  more  heat  and  drought  than  rutabagas 
or  turnips.  The  yields  ordinarily  run  all  the  way  from  ten 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD    ROOTS   AND    TUBERS  325 

to  20  tons  an  acre,  the  average  under  American  conditions 
being  about  15  tons,  but  far  higher  yields  are  easily  attain- 
able. The  yields  are  usually  higher  than  those  of  sugar 
beets  and  the  labor  of  growing  them  is  much  less.  Mangels, 
when  grown,  are  easily  injured  by  frost,  even  before  they 
are  harvested.  The  longer  that  mangels  can  be  kept,  the 
more  they  improve  for  feeding.  This  at  least  is  true  of  them 
for  several  months  subsequent  to  maturity,  and  it  results 
from  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  roots.  If  feel 
in  large  quantities  for  some  weeks  subsequently  to  maturity, 
they  tend  to  produce  scouring.  The  highest  use  of  mangels 
when  fed  to  stock,  is  to  promote  growth  in  young  animals 
and  to  stimulate  milk  production.  As  with  all  classes  of  field 
roots,  mangels  have  a  higher  feeding  value  than  chemistry 
assigns  to  them,  especially  when  fed  in  small  quantities. 
More  commonly  they  are  sliced  or  pulped  before  being  fed, 
except  when  feeding  them  to  swine. 

For  cattle  of  all  classes,  when  on  dry  food,  mangels  are 
excellent  and  more  especially  when  much  of  the  food  fed  is 
carbonaceous,  as  in  the  case  of  corn.  A  few  pounds  fed  daily 
to  calves  before  and  subsequently  to  weaning,  and  to  grow- 
ing cattle  in  winter,  will  tend  to  promote  increase  in  frame 
and  muscle  in  a  marked  degree.  Usually  not  more  than  20 
to  30  pounds  per  day  are  fed  to  cows  giving  milk,  but  larger 
amounts  may  be  fed  without  harm.  They  do  not  taint  the 
milk,  hence  they  are  preferred  to  rutabagas  and  turnips  for 
milch  cows.  The  quantities  named  will  also  be  suitable  for 
animals  that  are  being  fattened  under  ordinary  conditions  in 
America,  although  as  much  as  100  pounds  daily  per  animal 
is  sometimes  fed  to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened  in  Great 
Britain. 

For  sheep,  mangels  are  nearly  or  quite  as  valuable 
relatively  as  in  feeding  cattle.  Finely  sliced,  they  are  much 
relished  by  lambs.  Two  to  four  pounds  a  day  fed  to  breed- 
ing ewes  previous  to  lambing  and  larger  amounts  subse- 
quently, prove  very  helpful  to  them.  As  much  as  20  pounds 
per  day  is  in  some  instances  fed  to  large  sheep  that  are  be- 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

ing  fattened  but  such  feeding  would  seem  excessive  in  cold 
climates  and  under  American  conditions  would  prove  costly. 
Even  when  fed  to  breeding  ewes  in  very  large  quantities, 
there  is  some  hazard  that  urinary  troubles  may  follow,  and 
such  hazard  is  increased  in  the  case  of  rams. 

For  swine  of  all  ages,  mangels  may  usually  be  fed  with 
profit,  when  not  getting  other  succulent  food.  They  are 
too  bulky  for  feeding  in  large  quantities  to  young  swine  or 
to  swine  that  are  being  fattened,  but  to  brood  sows  in  win- 
ter they  may  be  fed  so  freely  as  to  form  the  bulk  of  the  ra- 
tion. When  swine  are  first  put  upon  a  ration  of  new  corn, 
a  few  pounds  of  mangels  daily  help  to  balance  the  ration. 
The  Michigan  experiment  station  has  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  harvesting  mangels  with  swine  so  as  to  cheap- 
en materially  the  cost  of  production.  The  swine  are  given 
grain  in  addition.  The  amount  required  is  less  than  50  per 
cent  of  what  would  otherwise  be  needed  during  the  first 
part  of  the  grazing,  but  toward  its  close,  more  grain  would 
be  required  to  properly  finish  the  swine.  Under  all  condi- 
tions of  forced  feeding  or  fattening  with  grain,  a  pound  or 
two  or  even  more  of  mangels  fed  daily  will  aid  in  regulat- 
ing the  digestion.  Swine  feeding  after  cattle  that  are  being 
fed  corn  heavily,  will  be  more  healthy  and  thrifty  if  given 
nangels  in  addition,  and  will  also  withstand  a  visitation  of 
hog  cholera  better  than  those  not  so  fed.  Swine  are  more 
fond  of  mangels  than  of  rutabagas,  turnips  or  carrots. 

To  horses,  mangels  are  not  much  fed  under  American 
conditions,  but  there  are  no  good  reasons  for  not  feeding 
them  more  or  less  when  obtainable.  Moderate  amounts 
will  aid  in  keeping  the  digestion  of  horses  in  tone  as  well  as 
in  the  case  of  other  stock.  A  few  pounds  fed  daily 
with  dry  food  will  materially  aid  in  giving  draft  foals 
that  development  of  bone  and  muscle  that  is  so  much 
desired  i:i  this  class  of  horses,  and  will  prove  greatly  help- 
ful to  idle  horses  and  brood  mares  in  winter,  but  small 
amounts  only  should  be  fed  to  horses  at  hard  work. 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND   TUBERS  327 

Sugar  beets. — Compared  with  other  field  roots,  sugar 
beets  have  a  high  feeding  value,  but  the  cost  of  growing 
them  as  grown  for  the  factory,  is  considerably  more  than 
that  of  growing  mangels  under  similar  conditions.  It  is  also 
more  than  would  furnish  an  equal  tonnage  of  rutabagas 
where  the  conditions  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  lat- 
ter. For  feeding  live  stock,  therefore,  it  is  usually  considered 
preferable  to  grow  mangels  or  rutabagas.  The  labor  involved 
in  thinning  and  harvesting  sugar  beets  is  much  more  than 
that  called  for  in  thinning  and  harvesting  either  of  the  crops 
named.  But  there  are  varieties  of  sugar  beets  that  have 
special  adaptation  for  being  grown  for  live  stock,  owing  to 
their  large  size.  The  sugar  content  of  these  is  higher  than 
that  of  mangels,  hence  they  are  more  suitable  for  certain 
kinds  of  feeding.  Sugar  beets,  like  mangels,  may  be  grown 
in  some  portions  of  almost  every  state  in  the  Union,  and  in 
many  of  the  provinces  of  Canada.  Owing  to  the  high 
sugar  content  of  sugar  beets,  they  are  more  highly  relished 
than  other  field  roots  and  are  also  more  valuable  for  fat  pro- 
duction, but  they  are  not  more  valuable  for  feeding  young 
animals  to  promote  growth,  and  are  probably  less  valuable 
for  producing  milk. 

As  in  the  case  of  mangels  they  are  usually  fed  sliced  or 
pulped,  but  when  fed  to  swine  and  especially  to  brood  sows, 
they  are  generally  fed  whole.  In  practice,  the  difference  in 
the  feeding  value  of  sugar  beets  and  sugar  beet  pulp  is  less 
than  chemical  analysis  would  assign  to  these. 

By  cattle,  sugar  beets  are  highly  relished.  From 
10  pounds  downward  may  be  fed  daily  to  calves  ac- 
cording to  their  age  with  gratifying  results.  Young  cattle 
on  dry  roughage  will  take  larger  amounts.  Milch  cows  will 
make  good  use  of  20  to  30  pounds  per  day  in  the  absence  of 
corn  ensilage,  and  smaller  amounts  in  conjunction  with  the 
same.  But,  of  course,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  feed 
sugar  beets  to  dairy  cows  that  are  being  given  a  liberal  al- 
lowance of  corn  ensilage.  To  cattle  that  are  being  fattened, 
large  amounts  may  be  fed  daily,  limited  only  by  the  cost  and 


328  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

the  capacity  of  the  animals  to  consume  them.  Economy, 
however,  points  in  the  direction  of  the  very  moderate  feed- 
ing of  roots  under  American  conditions,  owing  to  the  cost 
of  growing  them. 

For  sheep,  sugar  beets  are  excellent  when  fed  to  breed- 
ing ewes  on  dry  feed.  They  are  also  particularly  good  for 
milk  lambs  that  are  being  pushed  for  the  market.  For  fat- 
tening sheep  and  lambs,  sugar  beets  should  be  fed  along  with 
grain,  notwithstanding  their  high  sugar  content.  They  are 
too  bulky  a  food  to  admit  of  feeding  them  alone  for  fatten- 
ing along  with  hay. 

For  swine  of  all  ages,  sugar  beets  are  excellent,  espe- 
cially for  growing  swine.  They  are  greatly  relished  by 
young  animals  and  furnish  an  economical  food  for  them 
when  fed  as  part  of  the  ration.  Brood  sows  will  winter 
nicely  and  cheaply  on  them  with  a  small  amount  of  grain 
added.  A  small  quantity  will  be  found  helpful  far  beyond  the 
cost,  to  animals  that  are  being  pushed  along  by  heavy  feed- 
ing of  grain.  Experiments  conducted  in  feeding  sugar  beets 
to  swine,  have  shown  that  from  4  to  8  pounds  of  sugar  beets 
are  equal  to  I  pound  of  barley. 

To  horses,  sugar  beets  are  not  much  fed,  but 
when  available,  moderate  quantities  will  be  as  helpful 
relatively  to  young  horses  as  to  young  stock  of  other 
classes.  To  horses  that  are  at  work,  the  same  limitations 
in  feeding  should  be  observed  as  in  feeding  other  roots, 
which  means  that  they  should  not  be  fed  to  the  extent  of 
relaxing  the  bowels  unduly. 

Rutabagas  and  turnips. — The  rutabaga  is  a  variety  of 
turnip  which  it  is  thought  originated  in  Sweden,  hence  in 
Great  Britain  and  Canada  they  are  commonly  designated 
Swedish  turnips.  They  are  by  far  the  most  commonly 
grown  and  also  the  most  valuable  of  the  turnip  family,  ow- 
ing to  the  firmness  of  the  bulbs  and  the  long  period  during 
which  they  may  be  kept.  Turnips,  as  distinguished  from 
rutabagas,  grow  more  quickly  than  the  latter,  are  less  firm 
in  flesh,  and  do  not  retain  their  good  feeding  qualities  so 


FOOD    FROM    FIELD    ROOTS    AND   TUBERS  329 

long  as  the  former.  The  methods  of  growing  the  different 
varieties  is  substantially  the  same,  although  on  suitable  soils 
and  at  proper  elevations,  they  may  be  grown  over  wide 
areas  of  the  United  States,  the  conditions  best  suited  to 
their  growth  being  on  good,  sandy  loam  soils  where  the  tem- 
peratures in  the  growing  season  are  moderate  to  cool,  and 
where  the  atmosphere  is  moist.  Large  areas  in  Canada  are 
admirably  adapted  to  the  growing  of  both.  All  kinds  of 
turnips  are  at  their  best  for  feeding  when  the  crop  is  first 
harvested,  but  rutabagas  especialy  retain  their  good  feed- 
ing properties  for  a  long  period.  More  commonly  these 
roots  are  sliced  or  pulped  before  feeding  them,  except,  of 
course,  when  they  are  fed  off  by  sheep  where  they  grew. 
This  practice,  very  common  in  Great  Britain,  is  quite  feas- 
ible in  those  portions  of  the  United  States  where  the  soil  is 
not  heavy,  and  where  frost  does  not  lock  the  ground  early  in 
the  season,  but  more  commonly  it  is  necessary  both  in  this 
country  and  in  Canada  to  store  the  crop  for  future  feeding. 
For  cattle  of  all  classes  and  ages,  as  a  food  adjunct 
both  rutabagas  and  turnips  are  excellent,  except  that 
when  fed  to  cows  giving  milk,  both  the  milk  and  butter 
resulting  will  possess  the  odor  of  the  roots  unless  they  are 
fed  with  caution.  From  say  10  pounds  downwards,  fed 
daily  to  calves,  according  to  age,  will  aid  materially  in  the 
absence  of  other  green  food  in  maintaining  them  in  good 
thrift,  and  in  securing  satisfactory  development  of  bone  and 
muscle.  To  young  cattle,  yarded  in  winter,  and  maintained 
chiefly  or  wholly  on  inferior  hay  or  straw,  they  may  be  fed 
with  much  benefit  up  to  that  limit  which  would  make  feed- 
ing them  too  costly.  Along  with  straw,  10  to  15  pounds  a 
day  will  insure  both  thrift  and  growth  in  such  animals.  To 
cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  100  pounds  per  day  is  some- 
times fed  in  Great  Britain.  Such  feeding  of  roots  would  be 
too  costly  under  American  conditions.  Such  cattle  in  this 
country,  if  fed  rutabagas  or  turnips  at  all,  are  seldom  fed 
more  than  10  to  20  pounds  per  animal,  daily.  Milch  cows  may 


33O  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

be  fed  similar  amounts  without  much  hazard  of  taint  in  the 
milk,  providing  thev  are  fed  night  and  morning  just  after 
each  milking. 

For  sheep,  rutabagas  and  turnips  have  been  used  to 
a  greater  extent  probably  than  in  feeding  any  other  class 
of  live  stock.  When  fed  freely  to  young  lambs,  in  a  finely 
sliced  condition,  they  aid  materially  in  starting  them  into 
vigorous  growth.  When  pregnant  ewes  are  being  given 
leguminous  fodders,  it  is  thought  that  large  quantities 
of  rutabagas  or  turnips  in  addition  tend  to  produce  lambs 
abnormally  large,  but  deficient  in  vitality.  From  2  to  4 
pounds  a  day  will  probably  be  enough,  but  subsequently 
to  lambing  they  may  be  fed  in  much  larger  quantities. 
Sheep  may  be  fattened  almost  entirely  on  grain  and 
turnips.  When  so  fattened,  the  roots  may  be  fed  up 
to  the  limit  of  the  capacity  of  the  sheep  to  consume  them. 
But  such  fattening  is  .far  too  costly  for  American  condi- 
tions. Only  a  few  pounds  daily  are  usually  fed  to  such 
sheep  when  fed  at  all. 

To  swine,  rutabagas  and  turnips  may  be  fed  as  a 
part  of  the  ration  when  not  on  succulent  pasture,  and 
more  especially  while  they  are  being  grown,  but  they 
are  not  so  fond  of  them  as  of  sugar  beets  or  mangels.  They 
may  be  fed  sliced,  pulped  or  whole  and  with  or  without  the 
tops.  There  may  be  instances  in  which  they  may  aid  in  har- 
vesting the  crop,  as  when  turnips  are  sown  along  with  the 
small  cereals.  Brood  sows  turn  them  to  good  account  in  win- 
ter when  a  small  amount  of  grain  is  fed  in  addition.  When 
the  labor  conditions  will  admit  of  it,  they  may  sometimes  be 
fed  with  profit  to  pigs  that  are  being  fattened,  when  cooked 
and  mixed  with  meal. 

To  horses  of  all  ages,  though  not  commonly  fed, 
both  rutabagas  and  turnips  may  be  so  fed.  They  are 
commonly  sliced  or  pulped  when  fed  thus.  When  pulped 
they  are  usually  mixed  with  cut  fodder.  One  pound  of 
hay  has  a  feeding  value  equal  to  4  pounds  of  rutabagas. 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND    TUBERS  33 1 

Carrots. — The  carrot  is  one  of  the  surest  root  crops 
that  can  be  grown  in  the  United  States,  and  it  may  also  be 
grown  under  the  greatest  variety  of  conditions.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  most  valuable  when  it  is  grown.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  probably  grown  to  a  less  extent  as  a  food  for  live  stock 
than  any  other  root  crop  devoted  to  such  feeding.  This 
arises,  first,  from  the  relatively  large  amount  of  labor  in- 
volved in  keeping  the  crop  clean,  and  second,  from  the  rel- 
atively large  amount  of  the  same  called  for  in  harvesting 
and  storing  the  roots,  which  do  not  usually  gpow  so  large 
as  other  field  roots.  They  furnish  an  excellent  and  safe 
food  for  all  classes  of  farm  animals.  As  with  other  field 
roots,  they  have  a  physiological  value,  so  to  speak,  in  addi- 
tion to  their  feeding  value,  especially  when  the  other  food 
fed  is  dry.  To  produce  this  effect,  it  is  not  necessary  to  feed 
a  large  quantity.  Notwithstanding,  carrots  are  so  safe  a 
food  that  they  may  be  fed  in  large  quantities  where  such 
feeding  will  prove  economical.  It  is  not  necessary  to  slice 
them  for  feeding  unless  when  they  are  being  fed  to  young 
calves  or  to  lambs. 

For  cattle  of  all  classes,  carrots  furnish  an  excellent 
food.  A  few  pounds  fed  daily  to  calves  will  add  greatly 
to  their  development,  especially  when  the  fodder  fed 
is  dry.  They  may  be  fed  with  the  utmost  freedom  to  milch 
cows,  and  without  any  fear  of  tainting  the  milk.  They  tend 
greatly  to  stimulate  milk  production  in  cows  on  winter  ra- 
tions. For  milk  production  they  may  be  fed  up  to  the  limit 
of  at  least  30  pounds  daily,  when  they  are  not  too  costly. 
When  they  can  be  spared  for  such  a  use,  a  few  pounds  fed 
daily  to  cattle  that  are  being  wintered  on  dry  fodder  will 
result  in  great  benefit  to  them.  They  will  also  tend  to  pro- 
duce rapid  gains  when  fed  to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened, 
but  they  are  usually  too  costly  a  food  to  admit  of  feeding 
them  thus. 

For  sheep,  carrots  are  as  valuable  relatively  as  for  cat- 
tle. From  I  to  3  pounds  daily  in  the  winter  will  add 
much  to  the  thrift  of  store  sheep  and  breeding  ewes  kept  on 


33^  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

• 

dry  food.  For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened,  carrots  will 
usually  be  found  too  costly,  but  a  few  pounds  fed  daily  way 
be  in  order  under  some  conditions. 

For  swine,  tests  conducted  in  Denmark  have  shown 
that  on  the  basis  of  dry  matter,  carrots  and  mangels  were 
about  equal  in  feeding  value.  This  would  mean  that  pound 
for  pound,  carrots  would  be  more  valuable  than  mangels 
for  such  feeding,  but  the  difference  is  not  great.  On  the 
other  hand,  carrots  are  not  so  much  relished  by  swine  as 
mangels.  The  highest  value  from  feeding  carrots  to  swine 
will  probably  come  from  feeding  them  to  brood  sows  in 
winter  along  with  grain.  Nutriment  in  the  carrots  will  usu- 
ally be  furnished  more  cheaply  than  an  equal  amount  of  nu- 
triment in  the  grain. 

For  horses  of  all  classes,  carrots  have  been  found  valu- 
able. In  Ontario,  Canada,  considerable  quantities  of  carrots 
are  grown  for  such  feeding.  A  few  pounds  per  day  are 
excellent  for  promoting  thrift  and  growth  in  weanling  foals 
and  also  in  those  of  more  advanced  age.  They  are  excellent 
for  keeping  in  tone  the  digestion  of  horses  wintered  on  dry 
food,  more  especially  when  it  is  composed  mainly  of  straw. 
Horses  at  work  can  also  use  a  moderate  amount  to  advan- 
tage, but,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  water  which  they 
contain,  the  quantity  fed  should  be  moderate,  usually  not 
more  than  a  few  pounds  per  day.  They  are  also  much 
prized  in  providing  food  for  stallions  when  fitting  them  for 
service  and  also  for  the  show-ring.  Usually  not  more  than 
12  to  15  pounds  per  day  are  fed.  They  act  beneficially  on 
the  glands  of  the  skin  and  thereby  improve  the  coat. 

Irish  potatoes. — Potatoes  of  a  quality  that  would  fit 
them  for  the  market  may  sometimes  be  fed  with  profit  to 
various  classes  of  farm  animals  when  market  values  run  so 
low  as  to  justify  such  feeding,  but  they  are  seldom  or  never 
grown  primarily  for  feeding  live  stock.  Field  roots,  as 
mangels  and  rutabagas,  can  usually  be  grown  so  as  to  pro- 
duce more  nutrients  per  acre  than  potatoes  and  at  less  cost, 


FOOD  FROM    FIELD  ROOTS   AND  TUBERS  333 

while  the  former  are  also  more  highly  relished.  Those  re- 
jected for  cooking,  however,  because  of  insufficient  size  or 
because  unshapely,  may  always  be  turned  to  good  account 
when  judiciously  fed  to  farm  animals. 

Potatoes  are  rich  in  starch  and,  therefore,  may  be  used 
with  profit  under  some  conditions  in  fattening  animals, 
more  especially  swine.  They  are  so  bulky,  however,  and 
contain  so  much  water,  that  it  has  been  found  more  profit- 
able when  feeding  them  for  fat  production  to  remove  much 
of  the  water  by  first  cooking  them.  To  other  classes  of 
stock  they  are  more  commonly  fed  raw.  But  potatoes,  old 
and  shrivelled,  or  that  have  sprouted,  should  not  be  so  fed, 
as  they  contain  a  principle,  solanim  which  is  dangerous  to 
live  stock  and  which  is  removed  by  boiling  the  tubers.  Like 
all  classes  of  tubers  and  field  roots,  they  have  a  beneficial 
influence  on  the  digestion  apart  from  the  nutritive  value, 
consequently  when  fed  to  farm  animals  maintained  on  dry 
food,  they  aid  in  keeping  the  digestion  in  tone.  Except 
when  fed  to  swine  and  grown  sheep,  they  should  usually  be 
sliced.  Cattle  may  choke  on  them  when  fed  whole. 

To  cattle  of  all  classes,  potatoes  may  be  fed  with  more 
or  less  benefit  when  they  can  be  spared  for  such  feeding, 
unless  when  the  animals  are  being  maintained  on  succulent 
food.  A  few  pounds  only  should  be  fed  to  calves  daily. 
Cows  in  milk  should  not  be  given  potatoes  in  large  quanti- 
ties except  in  conjunction  with  protein  foods,  owing  to  their 
highly  carbonaceous  character,  otherwise  they  may  tend  too 
much  to  the  production  of  fat  rather  than  milk.  With  such 
foods  in  plentiful  supply,  as  many  as  15  to  20  pounds  per 
day  may  be  fed  without  harmful  results.  Cattle  that  are  be- 
ing fattened  will  take  as  much  as  30  pounds  per  day,  but 
usually  smaller  quantities  will  suffice. 

To  sheep,  a  few  pounds  fed  daily  when  on  dry  feed 
will  aid  materially  in  promoting  thrift  in  the  flock.  Usually 
2  to  4  pounds  may  be  fed  with  benefit  to  breeding  sheep  not 
on  grass.  Twice  these  amounts  and  even  more  may  be  fed 
to  sheep  that  are  being  fattened.  When  sliced  they  may 


334  FELLING    FARM    ANIMALS 

be  fed  with  satisfaction  to  milk  lambs  that  are  being  pushed 
for  the  market.  There  may  also  be  instances  in  which  they 
may  be  allowed  to  feed  on  cull  potatoes  in  the  field. 

For  swine,  especially  when  they  are  being  fattened,  po- 
tatoes are  relatively  more  valuable  than  for  other  classes  of 
live  stock.  They  may  be  fed  raw,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  when  cooked,  the  gains  resulting  are  materially  in- 
creased. They  may  be  cooked  by  steaming  or  boiling.  If 
cooked  by  boiling,  as  little  water  should  be  used  as  will  suf- 
fice. Meal  is  then  added  and  the  whole  is  made  into  a  mash. 
If  cooked  squashes  or  pumpkins  are  added,  the  ration  will 
be  cheapened,  but  such  food  is  rather  adapted  to  growing 
swine.  Danish  experiments  have  shown  that  4  pounds 
of  potatoes  were  required  to  make  as  much  increase  with 
swine  as  I  pound  of  grain.  Wisconsin  experiments  have 
shown  that  4I/£  pounds  fed  raw  are  required  to  make  as 
much  increase  as,  I  .pound  of  corn.  Swine  do  not  relish 
them  when  made  into  a  thin  slop.  When  cull  potatoes  are 
left  as  they  fell  from  the  digger,  swine  may  be  used  in 
gathering  them  up,  but  vshould  be  given  some  grain  also  in 
addition. 

Horses  at  work*  may  be  given  from  10  to  12  pounds  of 
raw  potatoes  daily.  If  fed  larger  quantities,  there  would 
be  some  tendency  to  an  unduly  lax  condition  of  the  bowels. 
Even  larger  amounts  may  be  fed  to  brood  mares  and  horses 
not  at  work,  especially  when  they  are  in  a  low  condition. 
Half  the  amounts  named  above  should  suffice  for  weanling 
foals. 

Sweet  potatoes. — These  are  primarily  grown  as  food 
for  man  and  yet  they  may  be  profitably  grown  as  food  for 
live  stock  in  certain  areas  of  those  portions  of  the  United 
States  that  are  favored  with  a  mild  climate,  so  mild  that  no 
frost  is  present  for  150  days  during  the  period  of  growth, 
and  the  midnight  temperatilres  do  not  reach  lower  than  45°. 
Although  they  have  \  highest  adaptation  for  being  fed  to 
swine,  they  are  frequently  fed  also  to  cows,  and  may  be  fed 
to  all  classes  of  domestic  animals  on  .the.  farm.  The  yields  of 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND   TUBERS  335 

the  coarse  growing  varieties  are  sometimes  very  large,  as 
large  as  9  to  12  tons  of  tubers  per  acre,  and  in  some  instances 
the  enormous  production  of  18  tons  per  acre  has  been 
reached.  The  average  yields,  however,  are  considerably 
lower  than  9  tons  per  acre.  To  grow  the  crop  at  its  best, 
requires  a  loam  soil,  inclining  to  sandy,  porous  and  natu- 
rally fertile  or  made  so.  Sweet  potatoes  may  be  grown  even 
for  live  stock,  southward  from  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  riv- 
ers, in  the  East,  and  southward  from  the  latitude  of  Des 
Moines,  Iowa,  and  in  the  mountain  valleys,  southward  from 
say  Walla  Walla  in  Washington  in  the  West.  They  are  usu- 
ally fed  in  the  sliced  form  except  when  fed  to  swine.  The 
perishable  nature  of  sweet  potatoes  tends  to  shorten  the  sea- 
son for  feeding  them,  and  to  encourage  the  feeding  of  the 
crop  as  soon  as  is  reasonable  after  it  has  matured. 

For  cattle,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  leguminous  ad- 
juncts along  with  sweet  potatoes.  Though  relatively  better 
adapted  for  fattening  than  for  milk  production,  they  are 
more  commonly  fed  for  the  latter  end.  A  few  pounds  fed 
daily  to  calves  and  young  cattle  will  aid  them  materially. 
Large  quantities  may  be  fed  with  safety  to  beef  cattle,  but 
moderate  quantities  will  probably  be  found  relatively  more 
profitable.  In  some  instances  40  to  45  pounds  per  day  have 
been  fed  to  cows  in  milk.  But  these  quantities  would  seem 
excessive  of  a  food  so  rich  in  carbohydrates.  The  results 
will  probably  be  more  satisfactory  when  not  more  than  15 
to  20  pounds  are  fed  daily  along  with  concentrates  such  as 
soy  bean  or  cottonseed  meal. 

To  sheep,  sweet  potatoes  are  seldom  given,  largely 
for  the  reason  that  where  they  are  grown  most  extensively, 
sheep  are  not  much  grown.  They  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage in  feeding  off  the  tops  before  the  crop  is  har- 
vested. For  sheep  that  are  being  grazed  on  such  pas- 
ture as  cowpeas  or  Japan  clover,  especially  with  a  view  to 
fattening  them,  sweet  potatoes  should  furnish  a  very  suit- 
able complement.  A  few  pounds  fed  daily  should  suffice, 
but  heavier  feeding  may  also  sometimes  be  in  order. 


336  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

For  swine,  sweet  potatoes  are  better  adapted  to  fur- 
nishing food  than  for  other  classes  of  live  stock,  as 
in  addition  to  being  very  much  relished  by  swine,  they 
are  a  good  food  for  fattening  them,  and  they  may  also  be 
harvested  by  the  swine.  Being  a  bulky  food,  some  concen- 
trated food  should  be  fed  along  with  them.  For  such  feed- 
ing cowpeas  and  soy  beans  are  very  suitable,  but  corn  may 
also  be  fed  so  as  to  form  one-half  the  concentrate.  When 
swine  are  thus  fattened  on  sweet  potatoes,  they  should  not 
be  required  to  glean  closely  lest  the  exertion  thus  made 
should  be  too  much  for  the  best  gains  to  result.  Sucii 
gleaning  should  be  done  by  store  swine. 

For  horses  and  mules,  at  work  in  the  South,  sweet 
potatoes  are  frequently  fed.  For  such  feeding  they  have 
been  found  quite  suitable  when  fed  sliced  along  with  corn 
or  other  grain,  in  the  proportion  of  say  3  pounds  of 
potatoes  to  i  pound  of  grain.  There  would  seem  to  be  no 
reasons  why  they  should  not  be  fed  in  moderation  to  foals 
and  to  young  horses  not  yet  matured,  when  they  can  be 
spared  for  such  feeding. 

Jerusalem  artichokes. — These  may  be  successfully 
grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  tops  are  sometimes  used  in  providing  food  tor  stock 
where  intensive  conditions  prevail,  but  even  under  such  con- 
ditions, the  chief  value  of  the  crop  lies  in  the  tubers.  They 
are  more  watery  than  potatoes,  but  are  richer  in  protein.  In 
feeding  value  they  have  been  found  fully  equal  to  potatoes, 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  practical  results.  Their  abil- 
ity to  resist  frost  without  injury  adds  much  to  their  eco- 
nomic importance,  as  it  makes  it  possible  to  harvest  them 
with  swine  or  otherwise  even  after  the  winter  has  gone. 
The  yields  vary  greatly  with  varying  conditions,  but  200  to 
300  bushels  per  acre  may  be  readily  grown  under  average 
conditions.  The  persistency  with  which  artichokes  remain 
in  the  soil  is  one  objection  to  growing  them. 

For  cattle,  the  feeding  value  of  artichokes  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  potatoes,  and  about  the  same  quantities  may 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND   TUBERS  337 

be  profitably  fed.  It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  they 
will  ever  be  much  grown  as  food  for  cattle  because  of  the 
labor  required  in  handling  them  for  winter  feeding,  when 
they  are  more  valuable  relatively  than  at  other  seasons. 
They  furnish  good  food  for  calves,  for  store  cattle  in  win- 
ter and  for  cows  in  milk,  also  for  cattle  that  are  being  fat- 
tened, when  they  can  be  spared  for  such  feeding. 

For  sheep,  both  the  roots  and  tops  of  the  plants  may 
be  used  in  providing  food.  Sheep  soon  come  to  be  fond 
of  both,  but,  of  course,  they  do  not  consume  the  woody 
portion  of  the  stalk.  Store  sheep  and  breeding  flocks  will 
be  much  benefited  from  supplementing  the  other  dry  food 
fed  with  2  or  3  pounds  of  artichokes  per  day.  The  less 
cost,  however,  of  handling  field  roots,  will  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, preclude  the  growing  of  artichokes  as  a  food  for 
sheep. 

For  swine,  the  best  and  chief  use  of  artichokes  con- 
sists in  furnishing  them  with  food.  They  may  be  fed  to  swine 
at  any  age  subsequently  to  the  weaning  period.  When  used 
as  a  part  of  the  fattening  ration,  they  may  be  fed  in  the  same 
way  as  potatoes,  that  is  cooked  and  fed  along  with  meal. 
(See  p.  334.)  But  their  highest  use  in  feeding  swine  is 
found  in  the  food  which  they  furnish  to  growing  swine  and 
brood  sows  when  harvested  by  these.  Ordinarily  the  labor 
of  harvesting  artichokes  by  swine  that  are  being  fattened  is 
so  much  that  it  would  so  far  prove  adverse  to  laying  on 
flesh.  This  labor,  however,  is  very  beneficial  to  brood  sows, 
especially  when  they  are  pregnant.  It  furnishes  them  that 
degree  of  exercise  which  tends  so  much  to  promote  stamina 
in  the  young  animals  when  born.  Swine  that  are  being 
grown  will  be  much  aided  in  their  development  by  having 
access  to  a  field  of  artichokes,  but  a  grain  supplement  is 
necessary  to  promote  quick  growth  and  it  is  also  nec- 
essary though  not  in  quantity  so  large  for  brood 
sows  that  are  feeding  thus  on  artichokes.  The  milder 
the  climate,  the  more  prolonged  may  be  the  feeding  season, 
because  of  the  shorter  period  during  which  the  ground  is 
frozen. 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

For  horses,  tests  made  in  feeding  artichokes  have 
shown  that  they  are  excellent.  They  are  also  fond  of  them. 
They  have  been  fed  to  horses  to  the  extent  of  making  a 
reduction  of  50  per  cent  in  the  hay  required  with  results  that 
were  satisfactory.  They  may  be  fed  whole  to  all  classes  of 
stock,  but  in  some  instances  they  are  sliced. 

Cassava. — This  is  a  tropical  or  sub-tropical  American 
shrub  of  the  genus  Manihot  and  the  order  Euphorbiacese.  It 
is  a  shrub-like  plant  at  the  base  of  which  grow  prong-like  tu- 
bers. These  are  more  or  less  extensively  used  in  feeding 
live  stock  in  the  Gulf  states.  It  is  best  grown  on  sandy  land, 
and  the  yields  range  from  2  or  3  tons  to  15  tons  per 
acre.  The  tubers  are  exceedingly  rich  in  starch,  and  they 
have  been  much  grown  during  recent  years  to  supply  mills 
erected  for  the  express  purpose  of  manufacturing  starch 
from  them. 

As  the  plants  may  be  grown  as  annuals  or  perennials, 
and  as  it  is  not  usual  to  dig  them  as  food  for  stock  during 
the  active  period  of  growth,  they  are  seldom  extensively 
used  in  feeding  animals  from  May  I  to  November  I.  In 
other  words,  it  is  usual  to  feed  them  during  other  months 
of  the  year.  As  under  ordinary  conditions  of  exposure, 
they  do  not  keep  long  when  unearthed,  they  are  usually  dug 
as  wanted  for  feeding.  Should  the  supply  be  in  excess  of 
the  needs  for  feeding,  the  unharvested  residue  may  be  left 
in  the  soil  to  increase  for  feeding  the  following  season. 
The  increase  made,  however,  is  partly  counterbalanced  by 
increase  in  woody  fibre  in  the  tubers.  In  addition  to  fur- 
nishing wholesome  food  for  quadrupeds  on  the  farm,  they 
are  coming  to  be  much  prized  as  a  food  for  poultry.  The 
tubers  do  not  call  for  any  other  preparation  than  slicing, 
when  they  are  being  made  ready  for  feeding. 

For  cattle,  cassava  tubers  are  very  valuable,  more 
especially  when  they  are  to  be  fattened.  When  properly 
fed  to  milch  cows  they  also  aid  materially  in  the  produc- 
tion of  milk.  Such  feeding  should  only  be  done  in  con- 
junction with  a  liberal  supply  of  protein  foods,  such  as 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND    TUBERS  339 

cottonseed  meal  and  cowpea  or  other  leguminous  fod- 
der. It  is  said  that  the  free  feeding  of  cassava  to  cows 
tends  to  give  the  milk  a  reddish  tint  and  high  color  to  the 
butter.  Cottonseed  meal  fed  with  cassava  aids  in  firming 
the  butter.  For  beef  production,  as  much  as  20  to  25  pounds 
is  sometimes  fed  to  one  animal  daily.  When  thus  fed,  the 
cassava  will  go  far  to  take  the  place  of  corn.  For  such 
feeding,  the  roots  may  be  sliced  with  a  spade  in  the  absence 
of  a  cutting  box. 

For  sheep,  cassava  has  not  been  much  used,  but  for 
such  feeding  it  will  doubtless  be  found  quite  as  useful 
as  for  feeding  cattle.  Its  highest  use  in  feeding  sheep  will 
be  in  fattening  them.  From  4  to  6  pounds  per  day 
would  probably  be  found  ample  for  mature  sheep  along 
with  suitable  adjuncts. 

For  szvine,  cassava  has  proved  an  excellent  food. 
They  become  very  fond  of  it,  and  it  may  be  fed  to 
them  even  to  the  extent  of  producing  excessive  fatness. 
For  young  and  growing  swine  it  should  be  fed  along  with 
such  foods  as  shorts  or  cowpeas.  It  should  only  be  fed  in 
moderate  quantities  to  brood  sows  that  are  pregnant,  but 
may  be  fed  with  much  freedom  to  swine  that  are  being  fat- 
tened. Swine  should  never  be  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop, 
as  the  portions  brought  to  the  surface  and  unused  by  the 
swine  would  soon  spoil,  but  the  practice  of  allowing  swine 
to  glean  in  fields  from  which  a  crop  has  been  harvested  is 
commendable,  as  they  search  out  and  consume  portions  of 
broken  prongs  that  have  been  left  in  the  ground. 

For  horses  and  mules  at  work,  when  cassava  is  fed, 
the  grain  feed  may  be  reduced  proportionately.  Cassava 
and  corn  do  not  make  so  suitable  a  food  as  cassava  and 
oats,  since  the  latter  have  a  higher  protein  content  than 
corn.  If  cottonseed  meal  is  fed  to  horses  (see  p.  286),  a 
small  amount  fed  daily  should  answer  well  to  feed  with 
cassava.  When  large  amounts  of  cassava  are  fed  daily  to 
horses,  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  leguminous  fodders  along 
with  it.  Should  it  be  fed  to  young  animals  also,  the  aim: 
should  be  the  same. 


34°  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Cabbage. — This  plant  is  usually  primarily  grown  as  food 
for  the  human  family,  but  in  some  instances  it  is  also  grown 
as  food  for  live  stock,  and  even  when  grown  primarily  as 
food  for  the  human  family,  the  residue  of  leaves  furnishes 
excellent  food  for  some  classes  of  live  stock.  No  kind  of 
green  crop  is  grown  over  a  wider  area.  The  soil  and  climate, 
however,  of  northwestern  prairies  have  highest  adaptation 
for  the  growth  of  this  plant.  On  such  soils  as  many  as  24 
tons  of  heads  per  acre  have  been  grown,  not  including  a  large 
amount  of  leaves.  The  leaves  may  be  gathered  and  fed  to 
live  stock  after  the  heads  have  been  removed,  or  they  may 
be  fed  off  by  sheep  or  even  by  swine  where  they  grew.  In 
some  instances  the  entire  crop  is  grazed  down  by  sheep  in 
the  late  autumn.  Cabbage  furnishes  excellent  food  for 
some  kinds  of  farm  animals  in  winter,  but  the  labor  in- 
volved in  storing  them  is  such  as  to  make  the  feeding  of 
cabbage  too  expensive,  unless  when  they  are  fed  to  milk 
lambs  in  order  to  hasten  their  development  for  the  market. 
In  some  latitudes,  however,  the  winters  are  so  mild  that  cab- 
bage will  not  take  serious  harm  though  left  exposed  where 
they  grew.  In  such  instances,  the  leaves  and  soft  heads 
may  be  fed  with  profit  to  cows,  ewes  and  brood  sows. 

For  cattle,  the  highest  use  of  cabbage  is  found 
in  feeding  them  to  cows  for  the  production  of  milk.  The 
leaves  and  soft  or  immature  heads  may  thus  be  fed 
with  satisfactory  results,  at  least  in  a  limited  way.  They 
are  excellent  for  stimulating  milk  production.  The  plan  of 
grazing  cows  on  areas  from  which  a  crop  of  cabbage  has 
been  removed  is  not  to  be  commended,  as  such  grazing  is 
likely  to  result  in  too  lax  a  condition  of  the  bowels,  and  it 
may  also  result  in  tainting  the  milk,  more  especially  when 
decayed  or  partially  decayed  leaves  are  present.  Such  food 
will  be  helpful  to  calves,  but  even  for  them,  the  results  are 
•more  satisfactory  when  the  amount  of  cabbage  or  leaves 
fed  is  restricted.  They  are  seldom  or  never  fed  to  cattle 
that  are  being  fattened. 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND   TUBERS  34! 

For  sheep,  the  best  results,  all  things  considered,  are 
probably  obtained  from  feeding  cabbage,  and  in  no  way 
can  they  be  more  profitably  fed  than  by  grazing  them 
off  where  they  grew.  An  enormous  amount  of  food  per 
acre  can  thus  be  furnished  from  a  crop  of  cabbage  grown 
under  favorable  conditions,  more  than  can  be  obtained  from 
rape,  but  more  labor  is  involved  in  growing  cabbage.  The 
grazing  of  cabbage  may  be  continued  later  than  the  graz- 
ing of  rape,  as  cabbage  take  less  injury  from  frost.  As 
when  grazing  down  rape,  the  results  will  be  more  satisfac- 
tory when  the  sheep  may  have  access  also  to  a  grass  pas- 
ture in  an  advanced  stage  of  growth.  Sheep  also  answer 
admirably  for  gleaning  in  areas  from  which  the  merchant- 
able heads  have  been  removed.  In  mild  latitudes  sheep  may 
be  thus  grazed  far  on  into  the  winter,  but  on  stiff  clay  soils, 
such  grazing  would  tend  to  impact  the  land. 

For  swine,  rejected  cabbage  may  be  profitably  uti- 
lized at  any  season  and  under  nearly  all  conditions  of 
feeding,  but  the  crop  is  never  grown  primarily  for 
such  a  use.  Cabbage  leaves  and  soft  cabbage  may  be  fed  to 
swine  at  all  times,  or  they  may  be  allowed  to  glean  amid  the 
unharvested  portions  of  a  crop  after  removing  the  market- 
able heads,  but  the  waste  will  be  greater  than  when  sheep 
are  used  for  such  grazing.  The  rejected  heads  from  stored 
cabbage  may  be  better  utilized  by  swine  than  by  other  stock, 
as  they  are  less  harmed  by  consuming  partially  decayed 
heads  than  other  classes  of  live  stock  would  be. 

To  horses,  cabbage  are  seldom  fed,  but  there  are 
no  reasons  why  they  should  not  be  fed  to  colts  and 
brood  mares  except  those  which  arise  from  inconvenience 
in  feeding  them.  To  work  horses  they  would  have  to  be 
fed  with  prudent  caution. 

Pumpkins. — This  crop  may  be  grown  successfully  un- 
der any  conditions  that  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  a  crop 
of  corn.  They  are  very  frequently  grown  in  the  corn  crop, 
and  they  may  be  grown  thus  without  in  any  way  retarding 
the  growth  of  the  corn,  but  they  are  also  frequently  sown  as 


342  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

the  sole  crop  occupying  the  land.  The  small  varieties  are  gen- 
erally used  as  food  for  man,  but  more  commonly  the  large 
varieties  are  fed  to  the  various  classes  of  animals  kept  upon 
the  farm.  The  use  of  the  binder  in  cutting  corn  will  prob- 
ably tend  to  lessen  the  growth  of  pumpkins  in  this  crop,  as 
unless  removed  in  advance  of  the  binder,  they  are  much  li- 
able to  be  broken  by  the  same.  They  are  easily  injured  by 
frost,  and  when  so  injured  will  soon  spoil,  hence,  the  aim 
should  be  to  feed  them  in  the  autumn  and  early  winter,  as 
the  labor  of  storing  them  is  considerable  in  proportion  to 
their  feeding  value.  Those  immature  will  decay  more  read- 
ily than  pumpkins  fully  matured,  hence,  the  aim  should  be 
to  feed  them  first.  When  feeding  pumpkins,  they  are  usu- 
ally cut  open  with  the  spade,  and  for  some  kinds  of  feeding 
are  cut  into  smaller  pieces. 

For  cattle  of  all  classes,  pumpkins  furnish  excellent 
food,  but  they  are  most  highly  prized  for  feeding 
cows  in  milk.  When  so  fed,  the  practice  is  common  of 
drawing  them  daily  or  twice  a  day  from  the  place  where 
they  grew  to  the  pastures.  They  are  then  tossed  out  of  the 
wagon,  and  in  falling,  the  concussion  usually  breaks  them 
open,  so  that  further  division  is  not  necessary.  Cows  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  them,  and  may  with  safety  be  allowed 
to  consume  them  in  large  quantities.  The  claim  has  been 
made  that  the  seeds  are  adverse  to  free  milk  giving,  but 
this  claim  has  not  been  sustained  by  the  experience  of  feed- 
ers. The  free  feeding  of  pumpkins  is  highly  favorable  to 
abundant  milk  production.  Pumpkins  should  always  be  fed 
in  a  clean  place,  hence,  when  fed  to  cattle  in  pastures,  the 
exact  place  of  feeding  should  be  changed  from  day  to  day. 
They  should  be  finely  sliced  when  fed  to  calves.  For  such 
feeding  they  are  highly  suitable. 

By  sheep,  pumpkins  are  much  relished  and  also  by 
lambs,  as  soon  as  they  become  accustomed  to  them.  They 
will  learn  to  eat  them  more  quickly  if  first  sliced  and  salted. 
They  may  be  fed  to  sheep  in  the  same  way  as  to  cattle.  Ex- 
cept for  a  few  days  at  the  first,  they  may  be  allowed  to  eat 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND   TUBERS  343 

them  with  much  freedom.  They  will  be  found  of  much 
value  in  promoting  development  in  lambs  kept  for  breeding 
uses. 

To  swine,  pumpkins  are  frequently  fed  with  new 
corn.  When  so  fed,  they  correct  impaired  digestion 
and  improve  the  appetite.  The  portion  of  the  crop  that 
is  immature  is  more  commonly  fed  to  swine  than  to  other 
stock,  as  swine  will  consume  pumpkins  even  when  in  partial 
decay  which  would  be  rejected  by  other  farm  stock.  The 
practice  which  grows  low-growing  varieties  of  corn  that 
produce  ears  abundantly,  with  pumpkins  plentifully  inter- 
spersed, and  which  consumes  both  crops  with  swine,  is  to  be 
commended.  It  is  labor  saving  and  the  combination  makes 
excellent  food  for  fattening  swine. 

By  horses,  pumpkins  are  much  relished  but  they 
are  seldom  fed  to  them,  as  it  is  usually  more  con- 
venient to  feed  them  to  other  classes  of  live  stock.  In  the 
absence  of  other  green  food,  they  render  good  service  when 
fed  to  weanling  foals.  They  must,  of  course,  be  fed  with 
some  caution  to  horses  at  work,  as  they  may  relax  the  bow- 
els too  much  when  fed  over  freely. 

Squash. — This  plant,  commonly  grown  to  provide  food 
for  man,  is  in  some  instances  grown  to  specially  pro- 
vide food  for  swine.  On  ground  properly  prepared,  when 
all  the  conditions  are  suitable,  many  tons  may  be  grown  on 
an  acre.  Preference  should  be  given  to  the  soft  shelled  va- 
rieties when  of  suitable  size,  otherwise  the  rinds  may  prove 
so  hard  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  animals  to  consume  them, 
unless  they  are  first  softened  by  cooking.  As  considerable 
care  and  labor  are  involved  in  storing  them  so  that  they  will 
keep  into  and  through  the  winter  months,  and  as  they  are 
easily  injured  by  frost,  the  aim  should* be  to  feed  them  in  the 
autumn,  and  to  feed  first  any  that  may  be  immature,  as  they 
are  the  most  perishable.  Unless  when  feeding  them  to 
swine,  it  is  necessary  to  slice  or  break  them  open  as  with  a 
spade,  and  even  when  fed  to  swine,  the  hard  shelled  varie- 
ties should  be  thus  prepared.  When  squashes  are  fed  to 


344  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

live  stock  on  dry  food,  as  in  the  case  of  field  roots,  they  have 
a  physiological  value  in  addition  to  the  food  which  they 
furnish  (see  p.  51). 

For  cattle  of  all  classes,  squash  may,  of  course,  be 
fed.  when  they  can  be  spared  for  such  feeding,  but  they 
are  most  prized  for  producing  milk  and  are,  therefore,  more 
frequently  fed  to  cows  than  to  other  classes  of  cattle. 
Where  large  areas  are  grown  for  the  market,  rejected 
squash,  usually  available  in  large  quantities,  may  be  turned 
to  good  account  by  feeding  them  to  cows  in  milk.  No  harm 
probably  will  result  from  feeding  them  in  liberal  supply 
when  they  can  be  spared,  unless  the  amount  fed  should  too 
much  relax  the  bowels.  Usually,  however,  the  most  profit 
is  made  by  feeding  such  adjuncts  in  moderate  quantities, 
otherwise  the  benefit  resulting  in  addition  to  nutrients  fur- 
nished, may  not  be  secured  to  the  fullest  extent.  When  the 
pastures  dry  in  the  autumn,  squashes  make  an  excellent 
supplementary  food. 

By  sheep,  squashes  are  much  relished,  though  for  a  time 
they  may  refuse  to  eat  them  if  not  accustomed  to  them.  Es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  lambs.  When  fed  to  sheep  in  the 
autumn  before  the  rinds  have  too  much  hardened,  they  will 
materially  aid  in  promoting  growth  in  lambs  that  have 
been  weaned,  and  in  bringing  flesh  to  breeding  flocks. 

For  swine,  squash  are  an  excellent  adjunct  when  fed  in 
the  autumn.  The  most  profit,  when  the  labor  in- 
volved is  considered,  is  probably  obtained  from  feeding 
them  in  the  autumn  along  with  new  corn  fed  in  the  stalk  or 
in  the  snapped  form.  The  squashes  are  available  at  such  a 
time,  the  rinds  are  less  hard  than  later,  and  when  fed  at  that 
season  the  cost  of  storing  is  avoided.  Moreover,  they  fur- 
nish an  excellent  adjunct  to  such  corn  feeding,  as  they  have 
a  corrective  influence  on  the  digestion.  A  few  weeks  of 
such  feeding  aids  in  a  marked  degree  in  fitting  the  system 
for  the  heavy  grain  feeding  that  follows  during  the  fatten- 
ing period.  For  such  feeding,  one  good  sized  squash  fed 
daily  to  an  animal  weighing  about  150  pounds  will  serve  a 


FOOD    FROM    FIELD    ROOTS   AND    TUBERS  345 

good  purpose,  but  more,  of  course,  may  be  fed  with  benefit 
if  available.  For  later  feeding,  especially  to  swine  that  are 
being  fattened,  they  are  frequently  cooked  by  steaming 
along  with  meal,  and  when  so  prepared,  the  mixture  is  fed 
as  a  mash.  Rejected  squash  with  the  hardest  rinds  may  thus 
be  turned  to  good  account. 

By  horses,  although  some  kinds  of  squash  are  eaten, 
in  the  nature  of  things  they  are  not  likely  to  be  much  used 
for  such  feeding.  Relatively  they  are  usually  more  valuable 
to  feed  to  swine  or  to  caws  giving  milk. 

Peanuts. — This  tuber  has  been  grown  chiefly  to  provide 
rood  for  man,  in  the  United  States,  but  during  recent  years, 
they  are  also  grown  for  live  stock,  more  especially  for 
swine,  which  harvest  the  crop  in  the  fields  where  they  grew. 
The  tops  also  furnish  hay  that  is  much  relished  by  live 
stock.  The  peanut  crop  may  be  grown  successfully  as  far 
north  as  parallel  43°,  where  the  soil  conditions  are  suitable, 
but  it  has  centered  heretofore  in  the  light  soils  of  the  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  states.  That  more  food  for  swine  may  be 
grown  from  an  acre  of  peanuts  on  the  light  soils  of  the 
South  than  from  an  acre  of  corn,  is  generally  conceded  by 
those  who  are  conversant  with  the  conditions  for  growing 
the  two  crops.  With  skillful  cultivation,  as  many  as  50 
bushels  of  peanuts  per  acre  may  be  grown  on  soils  of  only 
moderate  fertility,  weighing  from  22  to  28  pounds  per 
bushel.  The  nuts  furnish  one  of  the  richest  protein  foods 
for  live  stock  that  is  grown  in  this  country.  After  the  oil 
has  been  expressed,  the  cake  resulting  is  fully  equal  to  oil 
cake  (see  p.  306).  The  hulls  also,  when  ground,  furnish  a 
valuable  food.  (See  p.  346.) 

For  cattle,  the  nuts  are  not  much  used  as  food,  for 
the  reason  that  unless  stained  or  otherwise  injured  for 
sale,  they  are  too  valuable  for  such  feeding.  In  some 
instances,  however,  more  or  less  of  the  nuts  adhere  to 
the  vines  which  are  fed  as  hay,  dependent  upon  the  mode  of 
harvesting.  If  the  vines  are  not  removed  before  the  crop  is 
harvested,  the  rejected  peanuts  are  sometimes  fed  as  hay 


346  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

along  with  the  vines.  When  thus  fed,  the  value  of  the  hay 
is  proportionately  increased.  Without  any  peanuts  adher- 
ing, the  hay  is  nearly  equal  in  value  to  peanut  hay.  Re- 
jected nuts,  in  the  form  of  meal,  may  be  ground  alone  or 
along  with  hulls  and  fed  to  cattle  and  other  stock.  The 
richness  of  such  meal  will  be  proportionate  to  the  amount 
of  nuts  and  hulls  respectively  which  the  meal  contains. 

By  sheep,  the  fodder  and  also  the  defective  nuts  will  be 
turned  to  good  account  as  soon  as  they  become  accustomed  to 
such  food.  They  may  also  be  used  with  advantage  in  graz- 
ing off  the  tops  before  the  crop  is  harvested.  No  class  of 
live  stock  will  effect  such  grazing  with  so  little  waste  as 
sheep.  Peanut  meal  may  be  fed  to  them  also  as  to  cattle, 
but  the  same  necessity  does  not  exist  for  grinding  them  for 
sheep.  The  cake  may  be  fed  to  sheep  in  about  the  same  way 
as  oil  cake. 

For  swine,  peanuts  have  higher  adaptation  in  fur- 
nishing food  than  for  any  other  class  of  live  stock, 
as  swine  only,  of  all  the  domestic  animals  of  the  farm,  may 
be  employed  in  harvesting  the  crop.  When  thus  harvested, 
the  tops  are  first  removed  by  grazing  them  down  with  cat- 
tle or  sheep,  preferably  the  latter,  or  they  are  mown  to  be 
made  into  hay.  When  thus  harvested  by  swine,  it  is  greatly 
advantageous  at  the  same  time  to  give  them  access  to  about 
an  equal  area  of  corn,  or  to  feed  them  a  supplement  of  corn 
daily.  It  has  been  claimed  that  a  bushel  of  peanuts,  weigh- 
ing from  22  to  28  pounds,  will  make  9  pounds  of  pork, 
in  other  words,  that  3  pounds  of  peanuts  will  make  I 
pound  of  pork,  whereas  about  5  pounds  of  corn  are  re- 
quired to  make  the  same.  The  crop  may,  of  course,  be  fed 
to  swine  when  confined  in  pens.  When  so  fed,  the  tops  are 
first  removed  and  the  roots  are  then  dug  and  placed  before 
the  swine  with  the  nuts  adhering  to  them.  Peanuts  alone 
make  soft  pork,  hence  the  necessity  for  feeding  a  supple- 
ment of  corn  in  order  to  firm  the  pork. 

For  horses,  peanuts  whole  or  ground  are  not  much 
used.  The  hay  from  peanuts  is  frequently  fed  to  them,  and 


FOOD    FROM    FIELD    ROOTS   AND  'TUBERS  347 

the  same  is  true  of  peanut  cake  or  of  the  meal  made  from 
the  same.  (See  p.  300.)  When  peanut  hay  is  fed  to  horses 
with  the  nuts  adhering,  some  caution  should  be  exercised 
owing  to  the  richness  of  the  food. 

Tops  of  roots  and  tubers. — The  various  roots  and  tu- 
bers, the  tops  of  which  may  be  used  as  food  for  stock,  in- 
clude mangels,  sugar  beets,  rutabagas  and  turnips,  carrots, 
sweet  potatoes,  peanuts  and  artichokes.  The  tops  of  Irish  po- 
tatoes and  cassava  are  possessed  of  little  or  no  value  for  feed- 
ing. The  value  of  the  tops  of  roots  in  feeding  live  stock  is 
measurably  dependent  on  the  way  in  which  they  are  fed,  and 
on  the  relative  cost  of  handling  them.  The  tops  of  field  roots 
when  fed,  are  either  consumed  in  the  field  after  the  crop  has 
been  removed,  or  are  drawn  daily  and  strewn  over  pastures 
where  live  stock,  may  gather  them,  or  they  are  fed  in  man- 
gers. When  gleaned  by  the  stock  in  the  field,  they  are  much 
liable  to  induce  scouring  because  of  their  succulence  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  are  consumed,  but  this  tendency  lessens 
proportionately  with  the  wilting  of  the  leaves.  Because  of 
this  hazard,  many  growers  simply  spread  them  and  then 
plow  them  under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil.  Sheep  will  con- 
sume them  with  less  waste  than  other  classes  of  live  stock, 
and  if  given  access  to  an  old  pasture  while  thus  consuming 
the  tops,  the  tendency  to  scours  will  be  measurably  removed. 
When  drawn  and  fed,  the  amount  consumed,  may  of  course, 
be  controlled.  The  tops  of  roots  are  specially  valuable  in 
furnishing  milk. 

Mangel  tops. — The  proportion  of  the  tops  to  the  roots 
of  mangels  varies  much  with  the  variety.  With  most  vari- 
eties it  is  probably  less,  rather  than  more  than  20  per  cent. 
The  leaves  of  mangels  are  removed  without  any  portion  of 
the  root  adhering  to  them,  as  in  the  case  of  sugar  beets, 
hence,  they  are  less  valuable  relatively  for  feeding.  Under 
intensive  conditions,  the  lower  leaves  are  sometimes  re- 
moved from  the  growing  crop  and  fed  to  live  stock.  This 
may  be  done  as  it  approaches  maturity  with  little  or  no  det- 
riment to  the  crop.  The  leaves  of  both  mangel,  and  sugar 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

beets  have  considerable  purgative  properties,  caused  by  the 
large  proportion  of  organic  acids  which  they  contain,  a  fact 
that  must  be  recognized  when  feeding  them 

Sugar  beet  tops. — With  sugar  beets,  the  proportion  of 
the  tops  to  the  beets  is  large,  usually  more  than  25  per  cent, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  root 
is  removed  with  the  top  when  preparing  the  roots  for  the 
factory.  The  feeding  value  of  the  tops,  therefore,  is  very 
considerable,  but,  because  of  the  presence  of  oxalic  acid  in 
the  leaves,  they  should  be  fed  with  moderation.  In  some 
countries  of  Europe,  lime  is  sprinkled  over  the  successive 
layers  which  form  the  earth-covered  heaps  in  which  they 
are  sometimes  kept  for  feeding,  with  a  view  to  neutralize 
the  acid. 

Turnip  tops. — The  tops  of  rutabagas  and  turnips  are 
usually  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  the  entire  crop.  Live 
stock  are  very  fond  of  them  and  they  do  not  possess  purga- 
tive properties  to  nearly  the  same  extent  as  beet  leaves.  But 
they  must  be  fed  with  caution  and  discretion  to  cows  in 
milk,  or  they  will  taint  the  same  and  also  the  butter  made 
from  the  milk.  To  avoid  such  a  result,  they  should  be  con- 
sumed only  after  each  milking. 

Carrot  tops. — The  tops  of  carrots  furnish  from  20  to 
25  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  crop,  but  the  dry  mat- 
ter in  the  tops  is  somewhat  greater  than  in  the  roots.  Car- 
rot tops,  like  those  of  turnips  and  rutabagas,  do  not  relax 
the  bowels  nearly  as  much  as  the  tops  of  beets  or  mangels. 
Nor  do  any  of  these  taint  milk  as  do  rutabagas  or  turnips. 

Sweet  potato  tops. — The  tops  of  sweet  potatoes,  though 
possessed  of  considerable  feeding  value,  are  seldom  fed  to 
live  stock,  owing  in  a  considerable  degree  to  the  difficulty  of 
harvesting  the  vines,  because  of  the  trailing  character  of 
their  growth.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  vineless  sorts, 
which  may  be  cut  with  the  mower.  In  some  instances  they 
are  grazed  down  before  the  tubers  are  dug.  Sheep  are  best 
adapted  to  such  grazing. 


FOOD   FROM    FIELD   ROOTS   AND    TUBERS  349 

Peanut  arid  artichoke  tops. — These  are  sometimes  fed 
both  in  the  green  and  dry  form.  The  former  make  excellent 
hay  when  cured  with  care  (see  p.  345).  In  some  instances 
they  are  grazed  off  by  sheep.  The  latter  are  too  woody  to 
allow  of  complete  consumption,  but  the  finer  portions  are 
much  relished  by  stock  (see  p.  336). 


CHAPTER  XVI 
PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING. 

In  the  discussion  of  this  question,  foods  are  considered 
first,  with  reference  to  curing;  second,  to  mechanical  prep- 
aration; third,  to  blending;  and  fourth,  to  softening  before 
feeding  them.  The  discussion  on  curing  considers:  (i) 
Curing  in  the  green  form,  (2)  curing  in  the  dry  form  and 
(3)  storing.  The  discussion  on  their  mechanical  prepara- 
tion considers:  (i)  Grinding  or  crushing  grain,  (2)  pulp- 
ing or  slicing  roots,  and  (3)  chaffing  and  shredding  fodders. 
The  discussion  on  blending  considers:  (i)  Blending  me- 
chanically, and  (2)  blending  chemically.  The  discussion  on 
softening  considers:  (i)  Soaking  foods,  and  (2)  cooking 
them  before  they  are  fed. 

Curing  foods  green. — Foods  are  sometimes  cured,  that 
is  preserved,  in  the  green  form.  When  so  preserved,  the 
curing,  so  to  speak,  is  accomplished  by  excluding  the  air. 
In  some  instances  curing  is  done  by  placing  the  fodder 
while  yet  green  in  a  large  mow  and  tramping  so  as  to  make 
the  mass  lie  closely.  In  other  instances  it  is  placed  in  stacks 
and  subjected  to  heavy  pressure  while  these  are  in  process 
of  erection.  The  aim  is  to  exclude  the  air  as  far  as  possible. 
That  remaining  in  the  mans  is  removed  by  the  heat  which 
develops  through  fermentation.  Preserving  green  fodders 
thus,  though  sometimes  practiced  in  America,  is  not  likely 
to  become  popular  in  the  near  future  for  several  reasons 
that  may  be  given.  Chief  among  these  is  the  reason  that 
green  fodders  may  usually  be  preserved  in  silos  with  less  of 
labor  and  more  of  effectiveness,  and  they  may  also  in  nearly 
all  instances  be  more  easily  fed  from  the  same. 

A  silo  is  simply  a  structure  in  which  green  food  is  pre- 
served, usually  in  the  cut  form,  and  through  the  walls  of 

350 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  351 

which  the  air  cannot  penetrate,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  ap- 
preciably injuring  the  fodder.  When  the  food  is  cut,  it  is 
the  more  easily  preserved  without  waste  and  may  also  be 
more  easily  fed  out.  Silos  are  built  of  wood,  bricks,  stone 
or  concrete.  The  circular  form  is  preferred  as  it  favors 
quick  and  even  settling  of  the  contents. 

Almost  any  kind  of  fodder  may  be  preserved  in  the 
silo  by  those  who  follow  the  correct  methods  peculiar  to  the 
proper  curing  of  each.  But  corn  is  used  to  a  far  greater 
extent  in  filling  silos  than  any  other  food.  This  is  owing 
to  the  large  production  per  acre,  to  superior  adaptation  for 
being  cured  thus,  to  the  ready  means  which  it  furnishes  for 
disposing  of  the  crop  without  husking  out  the  corn,  and  to 
its  great  value  in  general  feeding.  Next  in  adaptation  are 
the  sorghums.  In  some  instances  fodders  are  mixed  in  the 
silo  while  filling  it  with  a  view  to  aid  in  bringing  the  food 
more  nearly  into  balance.  For  instance,  such  nitrogenous 
foods  as  soy  beans  are  sometimes  mixed  in  with  corn. 

The  advantages  from  curing  fodders  and  especially 
corn  in  the  silo  are  the  following:  (i)  The  silo  preserves 
food  with  but  little,  waste  even  though  the  weather  should 
be  unpropitious.  (2)  It  preserves  such  fodders  as  corn  and 
the  sorghums  with  little  waste  and  insures  for  them  more 
complete  consumption  than  would  be  ordinarily  possible 
from  any  other  mode  of  curing.  (3)  It  furnishes  an  ex'- 
cellent  medium,  and  all  prepared,  with  which  to  feed  meal. 
(4)  It  puts  fodders,  particularly  such  coarse  fodders  as 
corn  and  the  sorghums  in  a  condition  that  admits  of  feeding 
it  at  a  minimum  expenditure  of  labor.  And  {5)  it  may  be 
made  to  furnish  succulence  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  feeding  corn  silage,  unless  it  is  removed  at  the  rate 
of  one  to  two  inches  of  the  surface  daily,  the  parts  exposed 
may  take  harm  from  the  exposure.  It  is  seldom  advisable 
to  feed  more  than  30  to  40  pounds  a  day,  even  to  a 
dairy  cow.  Should  ensilage  become  frozen,  as  it  does  some- 
times around  the  edges  of  the  silo,  it  may  still  be  fed,  if  fed 


352  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

at  once  after  the  frost  has  left  it.  Any  who  may  desire  fur- 
ther information  with  reference  to  silos  and  silage,  are  re- 
ferred to  the  book  "Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo/'  by  the  au- 
thor. 

Curing  foods  dry. — It  is  only  fodders  that  require  to 
be  cured  in  the  dry  form.  The  curing  of  these  in  detail 
cannot  be  discussed  at  this  time.  The  curing  of  each  is  dis- 
cussed at  some  length  in  other  works  written  by  the  author 
as,  "Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,"  "Grasses  and  How 
to  Grow  Them,"  "Cultivated  Crops  and  How  to  Grow 
Them,"  and  "Corn,  the  Sorghums  and  Sugar  Cane."  Only 
some  points  of  superlative  importance  and  general  in  char- 
acter can  be  here  given. 

In  curing  fodders,  whatsoever  their  character,  the  aim 
should  be  to  retain  as  far  as  possible  the  natural  color  of  the 
fodder  when  harvested,  to  cure  with  the  least  possible  ex- 
posure to  rain,  and  to  avoid  an  excessive  loss  of  moisture. 
Of  course,  the  curing  of  the  fodders  must  be  carried  far 
enough  to  prevent  them  from  moulding  when  stored  The 
natural  color  of  the  plants  will  be  lost  in  proportion  as  they 
are  exposed  to  sunshine  and  to  dew  and  rain.  A  certain 
amount  of  exposure  to  sunshine  is  unavoidable  and  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  the  curing  of  fodders,  but  the  aim 
should  be  not  to  expose  them  to  sunshine  longer  than  will 
admit  of  completing  their  cure  in  the  cock  or  shock.  Un- 
necessary exposure  to  sunshine  results  in  loss  of  aroma  in 
all  plants  and  leaves  of  legumes.  The  loss  of  aroma 
means  loss  in  palatability  and  serious  loss  in  nutrition.  Clo- 
vers, for  instance,  properly  cured,  retain  in  a  marked  degree 
the  natural  color  of  stem,  leaf  and  blossom.  When  the 
curing  of  fodders  is  completed  in  the  cock  or  shock,  only 
the  outer  portions  are  thus  injured  by  sunshine. 

Dews  and  rain  not  only  tend  to  darken  the  color  in  pro- 
portion as  they  are  heavy,  but  also  in  proportion  as  the  ex- 
posure is  prolonged  and  severe.  They  also  dissolve  and 
wash  out  of  the  plants  much  of  the  nutrition.  The  loss  in 
aroma,  as  in  the  case  of  exposure  to  sunlight,  also  increases 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  353 

with  the  exposure  to  these  influences.  Legumes  suffer  the 
most  readily  from  exposure  to  rain  and  dews,  and  corn  fod- 
ders are  more  easily  harmed  than  sorghum.  Legumes  ex- 
posed to  much  sunshine  and  to  frequent  wetting,  at  length 
become  almost  valueless  as  food.  The  grasses,  proper,  will 
suffer  much  less  from  such  exposure  and  sorghum  much 
less  than  the  grasses. 

The  loss  of  moisture  is  excessive  when  it  goes  beyond 
the  point  at  which  the  plants  will  keep  without  harm  when 
stored.  Loss  of  moisture  virtually  means  loss  of  succu- 
lence. Plants  fed  in  the  natural  condition  are  more  bene- 
ficial to  animals  than  the  same  plants  fed  in  equal  quan- 
tity in  the  dry  condition.  Were  it  not  so,  succulence  in 
foods  would  have  no  specific  value.  Thus  it  is  that  hay, 
lying  exposed  for  a  long  season  on  the  ground,  even  in  the 
entire  absence  of  rain  and  with  little  exposure  to  dew,  will 
at  length  become  comparatively  valueless  for  food,  not- 
withstanding that  when  it  was  first  cut  it  was  possessed  of 
high  feeding  value.  It  also  explains  why  the  desire  is  so 
prevalent  to  put  corn  in  large  shocks  in  the  field  after  it  has 
been  husked,  although  other  reasons  may,  and  do  exert  an 
influence  in  favor  of  the  practice.  The  fact,  however,  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  that  the  mistake  of  storing  fodders  so 
little  cured,  that  they  heat  so  much  as  to  make  them  dusty, 
the  feeding  value  becomes  greatly  impaired,  and  if  stored  so 
uncured  as  to  induce  mould,  to  feed  them  even  in  moderate 
degree  is  attended  with  more  or  less  of  hazard  to  the  health 
and  it  may  be  to  the  life  of  the  animals. 

Storing  foods. — The  proper  storing  of  foods  calls  for 
attention:  (i)  To  protect  them  from  injury  which  follows 
undue  exposure  while  yet  in  the  fields,  (2)  to  protect  them 
from  injury  after  storage,  whether  from  exposure  or  from 
storing  while  yet  undercured,  and  (3)  to  placing  them  in 
storage  where  they  will  be  convenient  for  feeding. 

All  kinds  of  fodder  suffer  harm  and  loss,  and  increas- 
ingly so,  with  increase  in  the  duration  of  the  exposure  sub- 
sequent to  that  time  when  they  are  ready  for  being  stored. 


354  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

Hay,  for  instance,  when  left  unduly  long  in  cocks,  takes 
harm  from  the  absorption  of  ground  moisture  and  from 
undue  drying  and  weathering  of  the  outer  portions.  The 
straw  of  certain  cereals,  useful  for  being  fed  to  stock  when 
well  saved,  will  soon  become  practically  valueless  for  feed- 
ing if  left  standing  in  shocks  for  any  considerable  time  after 
ready  for  being  stored.  Corn  stalks  gradually  lose  more  or 
less  and  in  various  ways,  from  the  time  they  are  put  in 
shock  and  probably  in  an  accelerated  ratio  as  the  season  ad- 
vances. Cull  potatoes  soon  deteriorate  materially  in  food 
value  if  left  exposed  after  being  dug.  The  rule  is  a  safe 
one  that  invariably  aims  to  store  foods  at  the  earliest  mo- 
ment practicable  after  they  are  ready. 

Fodders  can  in  no  other  way  be  protected  so  per- 
fectly after  storage  as  when  they  have  been  stored 
under  cover.  Nor  can  they  in  any  other  way,  as  a  rule, 
be  stored  so  as  to  involve  less  labor  while  feeding  them. 
The  benefit  from  such  protection  increases  with  increase  in 
the  precipitation,  increase  in  damp,  snowfall  and  sleet,  and 
increase  in  the  rawness  rather  than  in  the  degree  of  the 
cold.  The  extent  to  which  such  protection  will  be  profitable 
must  be  determined  in  a  considerable  degree  by  the  cost  of 
materials  used  in  building.  When  legumes  are  stored  in 
stacks,  they  cannot  be  protected  in  a  rainy  climate  from  seri- 
ous loss  unless  other  materials  are  used  in  topping  out  the 
stacks  that  will  completely  shed  rain.  Field  roots  of  all 
kinds,  including  parsnips  and  artichokes,  must  be  protected 
from  frost  or  they  will  take  injury  varying  in  degree  from 
a  slight  lessening  of  the  feeding  value  to  a  total  loss.  They 
must  also  be  kept  so  cool  that  they  will  not  begin  to  sprout. 

The  storing  of  food  where  it  will  be  convenient  for 
feeding,  is  greatly  important.  If  it  can  be  stored  so  that 
further  handling  is  not  necessary  until  given  to  the  animals 
for  consumption,  the  economy  in  handling  will  be  apparent, 
as  compared  with  an  intermediate  handling  in  addition. 
But  intermediate  handling  cannot  always  be  avoided.  In 
the  case  of  corn  fodder,  in  some  instances  it  is  necessary 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  355 

to  incur  the  cost  of  the  intermediate  handling  involved  in 
stacking  the  fodder  rather  than  to  draw  from  the  shock  and 
feed  directly.  Climatic  conditions,  more  than  anything  else, 
determine  which  course  is  the  better  to  adopt.  When  such 
fodder  as  hay  must  be  stacked  in  the  open,  the  aim  should 
be  to  have  it  near  the  place  for  feeding,  as  when  it  must  be 
drawn  far  from  the  place  of  storage  during  the  winter  sea- 
son, the  roads  are  frequently  in  a  bad  condition,  notwith- 
standing there  may  be  valid  reasons  for  stacking  such  fod- 
ders on  the  fields  where  they  grew.  In  storing  roots,  the 
aim  should  be  not  only  to  have  them  near  the  place  of  feed- 
ing, but  also  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  necessity  for 
carrying  them  up  steps  in  order  to  feed  them.  Supplies  of 
ensilage  and  meal  also  should  be  obtained  from  the  same 
plane  as  that  on  which  the  animals  stand  which  are  to  con- 
sume them. 

The  wisdom  of  storing  litter,  not  only  where  it  will  be 
properly  protected  but  also  where  it  is  conveniently  acces- 
sible, is  very  apparent.  There  are  instances  in  which  the 
proper  storing  of  bedding  may  be  quite  as  important  as  the 
storing  of  fodders.  The  conditions  of  storage  are  ideal 
when  all  the  fodder  and  bedding  required  to  carry  the  ani- 
mals through  the  winter  are  stored  above  them  when  they 
are  housed  in  a  well  constructed  basement,  but  such  build- 
ings are  becoming  too  costly  where  materials  for  construct- 
ing them  are  dear. 

Grinding  or  crushing  grain. — The  necessity  for  grind- 
ing and  crushing  grain  is  dependent :  ( i )  On  the  nature  oi 
the  grain  ;  (2)  the  animal  to  which  it  is  to  be  fed  ;  (3)  the 
combinations  for  feeding  of  which  it  forms  a  part;  and  (4) 
the  amount  and  kinds  of  noxious  weed  seeds  present.  As  the 
grinding  of  grain  when  cured  will  cost  from  5  to  10 
cents  a  hundred  pounds,  to  say  nothing  of  the  cost  of  con- 
veyance and  handling  during  the  process,  it  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  considerable  importance  that  unnecessary  grinding 
shall  be  avoided. 


356  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

The  necessity  for  grinding  grain,  based  on  the  nature 
of  the  grain,  is  greatest  with  seeds  naturally  small  and  hard, 
as  the  seeds  of  the  sorghums  and  of  those  that  in  addition 
contain  large  quantities  of  oil,  as  flax  seed,  millet  seed  and 
foxtail  seed.  Both  properties  resist  the  action  of  the 
gastric  fluids  when  unbroken  in  mastication,  hence  they 
pass  through  the  digestive  tract  to  no  good  purpose,  while 
meantime  they  have  put  a  tax  upon  the  energies  of  the  sys- 
tem while  in  transit  through  it.  The  small  cereal  grains, 
which  are  most  improved  by  grinding,  are  those  which  are 
smallest  and  hardest  and  which  are  possessed  of  the  least 
amount  of  soft  hull.  The  necessity  for  grinding  wheat,  for 
instance,  is  much  greater  than  that  for  grinding  oats.  Corn, 
more  than  any  other  grain  except  oats,  may  be  fed  without 
grinding,  but  when  it  is  to  be  fed  in  combination  with  other 
grain,  it  is  usually  profitable  to  grind  it.  It  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  do  so  when  corn  and  cob  are  both  fed. 

Virtually  all  kinds  of  grain  should  be  ground  when 
fed  to  calves,  the  exception  under  some  conditions  being 
oats.  All  kinds  of  grain  when  separated  from  the  straw, 
should  be  ground  for  beef  cattle.  The  exceptions,  but 
under  some  conditions  only,  are  corn  and  oats.  Unless 
when  swine  may  glean  among  the  droppings,  the  corn 
should  usually  be  ground.  .Virtually  all  kinds  of  grain  are 
improved  by  grinding  when  fed  to  dairy  cows.  Nearly  all 
kinds  of  grain  are  improved  by  grinding  for  feeding  to 
lambs  quite  young,  but  this  is  not  necessary  when  they  be- 
gin to  eat  grain  freely,  except  in  the  case  of  corn,  which  is 
improved  by  cracking  it  to  enable  them  the  more  readily  to 
eat  it.  For  lambs,  subsequent  to  weaning,  and  all  mature 
sheep,  it  is  not  necessary  to  grind  grain  free  from  noxious 
weed  seeds.  Grinding  improves  nearly  all  kinds  of  grain 
for  swine,  when  fed  unsoaked.  The  exception  is  corn  when 
fed  alone.  For  horses,  oats  and  corn  in  the  she11ed  form 
are  usually  fed  unground.  Barley,  rye,  speltz  and  wheat, 
especially  the  latter,  are  frequently,  if  not  always,  improved 
by  grinding,  and  the  grinding  of  sorghum  and  millet  seed 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  357 

is  simply  indispensable  when  these  are  fed  to  horses.  The 
necessity  for  grinding  grain  for  horses  is  much  greater 
when  they  are  hard  at  work  than  when  idle. 

When  grains  are  fed  in  combination,  which  is  a  com- 
mon way  of  feeding  them,  they  are  usually  ground. 
This  is  true  of  them  whether  fed  in  the  form  of  meal 
directly  or  in  admixture  with  cut  fodders.  The  ad- 
vantage from  grinding  them  is  based,  first,  on  the 
necessity  for  grinding  some  of  them ;  second,  on  the  greater 
ease  with  which  some  of  them  are  ground  when  blended 
before  grinding,  and  third,  on  the  more  complete  character 
of  the  mastication,  when  thus  prepared.  Some  grains,  as 
intimated  above,  must  be  ground  under  all  conditions  of 
feeding.  Flax  is  much  more  easily  ground  with  other 
grains  than  alone  and  especially  when  the  mixture  contains 
just  enough  of  the  same  for  ordinary  uses  and  no  more. 
Oats  are  ground  more  easily  when  blended  with  corn.  The 
same  is  true  of  other  mixtures.  Especially  is  the  mastica- 
tion more  perfect  when  the  meal  is  mixed  with  cut  fodders, 
because  of  the  re-grinding  given  during  the  rumination 
that  follows. 

No  kind  of  grain  containing  the  seeds  of  nox- 
ious weeds  should  be  fed  unground.  If  so  fed,  they 
are  much  liable  to  escape  mastication  because  of  their 
small  size,  and  to  escape  digestion  because  of  their 
hard  and  oily  character,  hence,  when  carried  to  the  fields, 
they  grow,  and  thus  infest  the  land.  Even  when  weed 
seeds  are  fed  to  sheep,  they  ought  to  be  ground,  as  many  of 
them  will  fall  amid  the  litter  while  the  sheep  are  feeding  up- 
on the  grain.  Grinding  is  usually  not  more  costly  than 
complete  winnowing,  and  it  is  much  safer. 

The  crushing  of  grain,  accomplished  by  passing  it  be- 
tween heavy  rollers,  in  preference  to  grinding,  has  some  ad- 
vocates. It  calls  for  less  power  than  to  grind  the  grain, 
and  in  the  case  of  grains  that  are  pasty  in  character,  and  li- 
able to  adhere  to  the  gums  in  mastication,  as  wheat,  and  to 
a  less  extent  barley,  it  is  preferable  to  crush  than  to  grind 


35&  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

for  some  kinds  of  feeding.  When  the  crushed  grain  is 
soaked  or  mixed  with  cut  fodder  before  being  fed,  the  ad- 
vantage from  crushing  is  lost.  Grinding  grain,  rather  than 
crushing  it,  will  always  be  more  practiced  on  the  farm, 
since  the  machinery  for  grinding  is  now  in  place  on  nearly 
all  farms  where  grinding  is  done,  since  such  machinery  is 
better  adapted  to  preparing  small  and  hard  grains  for  feed- 
ing, and  since  it  has  higher  adaptation  for  varying  the  de- 
grees of  fineness  in  the  grinding. 

The  degree  of  fineness  to  which  grain  shall  be  ground, 
should  be  determined  by  the  kind  of  the  grain,  the  way  it  is 
to  be  fed,  and  the  animals  which  are  to  consume  it.  It  will 
probably  be  correct  to  say,  that  the  smaller  and  harder  the 
grain  is,  the  more  finely  should  it  be  ground.  Corn  and  cob 
meal  should  be  more  finely  ground  than  corn  meal  for  aver- 
age uses,  the  cob*being  less  digestible.  When  meal  is  to  be 
fed  directly  to  animals  in  the  unsoaked  form,  it  should  be 
finely  ground  so  that  the  digestive  fluids  may  the  more 
readily  act  upon  it;  but  when  thus  ground,  some  kinds  of 
meal  call  for  admixture  with  some  substance  to  render  the 
mass  less  adhesive  in  the  stomach.  When  meal  is  to  be 
soaked  sufficiently  long  to  soften  it,  fine  grinding  is  not 
necessary,  and  the  same  is  true  of  meal  which  is  first  mixed 
with  cut  fodders  before  being  fed  to  ruminants.  Very 
young  animals  call  for  meal  more  finely  ground  than  will 
suffice  for  those  that  are  older. 

Whether  the  meal  should  be  ground  on  the  farm 
and  by  the  farmers  own  machinery,  by  portable  ma- 
chines which  travel  from  place  to  place,  or  by  stationary 
mills  which  take  in  custom  work,  is  an  economic  ques- 
tion that  must  be  determined  by  such  considerations  as 
the  volume  of  the  work  to  be  done,  the  distance  of  the  sta- 
tionary mills,  and  the  customary  charges  for  grinding.  When 
the  volume  of  the  work  done  v/ill  justify  it,  the  aim  should 
be  to  grind  the  feed  at  home.  The  power  to  be  used  in  each 
instance  is  a  question  of  no  little  importance.  This,  too, 
should  be  largely  determined  by  the  amount  of  the  grinding 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  359 

called  for.  When  this  amount  is  not  very  large,  wind  power 
will  probably  prove  the  cheapest.  The  old-fashioned 
tread-mill,  as  a  source  of  power,  is  perhaps  not  sufficiently 
prized.  There  is  also  a  place,  however,  for  motor,  for  gas- 
oline and  for  steam  power,  under  certain  conditions. 

Pulping  and  slicing  roots. — Pulping  roots  means  put- 
ting them  through  a  machine,  known  as  a  root  pulper.  It  is 
run  by  hand  or  by  other  power  as  desired  and  reduces  them 
to  a  pulpy  or  finely  comminuted  condition.  Slicing,  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  term,  means  cutting  them  into  thin  slices  by  put- 
ting them  through  a  machine  known  as  a  root  slicer,  and  run 
as  in  pulping,  by  hand  or  other  power.  In  the  absence  of  a 
slicer,  they  are  frequently  thrown  into  a  box  and  chopped  in- 
to pieces  with  a  spade.  Under  some  circumstances  they  are 
fed  without  either  pulping  or  slicing.  Whether  to  feed 
them  thus,  or  to  slice  or  pulp  them,  must  be  determined  by 
the  conditions  present.  Whether  roots  or  tubers  may  be 
fed  whole  is  determined  by  the  kind  and  size  of  the  variety, 
the  class  of  animals  to  which  they  are  to  be  fed,  the  age  of 
these,  and  the  degree  of  the  temperature  at  the  time  of 
feeding.  Carrots  are  about  the  only  class  of  field  roots 
which  it  is  practicable  to  feed  to  all  or  nearly  all  kinds  of 
farm  stock  without  first  cutting  or  slicing  them.  Arti- 
chokes, owing  to  their  shape,  and  peanuts,  owing  to  their 
small  size,  may  be  similarly  fed.  The  danger  is  present  in 
some  degree,  that  when  medium-sized  potatoes  are  fed  to 
cattle,  they  may  choke  upon  them.  The  aim  should  be  to 
avoid  feeding  all  kinds  of  roots  and  tubers  to  cattle  and 
even  to  horses  in  the  unprepared  form,  notwithstanding 
that  both  will  feed  upon  them  in  the  natural  state,  but  not 
with  the  same  ease.  Sheep  will  feed  upon  all  kinds  of  uncut 
roots,  but  not  so  readily  as  when  they  are  sliced,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  swine,  but  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  slice 
roots  for  swine  well  grown  or  for  brood  sows.  They  should 
be  sliced  or  pulped  for  all  kinds  of  young  animals.  When 
fed  to  animals  exposed  to  low  temperatures,  they  should  be 


360  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

given  in  that  form  in  which  they  can  be  consumed  quickly, 
lest  they  should  freeze  more  or  less  before  they  are  all  con- 
sumed. 

Roots  and  tubers  are  more  commonly  sliced  when  they 
are  simply  being  prepared  for  feeding  in  the  direct  form, 
that  is,  without  admixture  with  other  food.  This  method 
of  preparing  them  is  followed  rather  than  that  of  pulping, 
because  it  takes  less  power  and  because  slicers  have  been 
longer  in  use.  But  there  is  no  objection  to  pulping  even  for 
direct  feeding  when  it  is  as  convenient  or  more  so  to  pre- 
pare them  thus. 

When  field  roots  or  tubers  are  to  be  mixed  with 
meal  or  cut  feed,  it  is  necessary  that  they  shall  be 
pulped  rather  than  sliced,  in  order  to  obtain  a  more  per- 
fect blending  of  the  foods.  Field  roots  thus  prepared  and 
mixed  with  cut  fodders,  add  greatly  to  their  palatability 
and  value.  If  the  plan  of  pulping  roots  at  the  time  of  lift- 
ing and  then  storing  the  pulp  after  the  manner  in  which  en- 
silage is  stored  should  prove  successful,  the  questions  of 
storing,  keeping,  and  feeding  would  be  simplified.  No  data 
can  be  gathered  bearing  upon  the  question,  but  the  behavior 
of  sugar  beet  pulp  when  ensiled,  encourages  the  hope  that 
such  storing  would  be  quite  practicable. 

Chaffing  and  shredding  fodders. — By  chaffing  fodders 
is  meant  running  them  through  a  cutting  box.  The  ob- 
jects sought  in  chaffing»food  are:  (i)  To  insure  the  con- 
sumption of  a  fodder  low  in  palatability  by  admixing  it 
with  a  chaffed  fodder  high  in  palatability,  as  when  straw 
and  clover  hay  are  cut  and  mixed  before  feeding  them.  (2) 
To  insure  a  larger  total  consumption  of  fodders  by  putting 
them  in  that  condition  in  which  they  may  be  fed  after 
being  mixed  with  meal  or  field  roots  or  both.  (3)  To 
prepare  foods  in  that  condition  in  which  they  will  keep  best 
in  the  silo,  and  in  which  they  may  be  fed  out  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  labor.  Straw  fodders  are  also  chaffed  in 
some  instances  in  order  to  put  them  in  the  best  condition 
for  being  used  as  litter.  When  thus  chaffed,  straw  absorbs 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  361 

liquid  manure  more  perfectly  than  when  long,  and  the  ma- 
nure is  also  in  a  better  condition  for  being  easily  handled 
and  promptly  applied  to  the  land  as  soon  as  made.  But  it 
will  not  be  found  profitable,  as  a  rule,  simply  to  run  fodders 
through  a  cutting  box  and  to  feed  them  without  admixture 
in  order  to  increase  consumption  in  the  same. 

When  large  quantities  of  meal  are  to  be  fed  in  the  ab- 
sence of  silage,  the  plan  is  frequently  adopted  of  charring 
only  enough  of  the  fodder  to  furnish  bulky  materials  with 
which  it  is  mixed  before  feeding  it  to  ruminants,  in  order 
to  insure  its  most  thorough  mastication  while  undergoing 
rumination.  The  plan  is  to  be  commended  where  the  facil- 
ities are  present  for  carrying  it  out.  On  some  farms,  the 
small  cereal  grains  are  threshed  and  chaffed  by  the  one  op- 
eration, all  the  straw  grown  upon  the  farm  being  cut  in  that 
way.  Where  the  facilities  are  present  for  storing  the  chaffed 
material,  the  plan  is  excellent.  The  blowers  now  used 
on  threshers  will  be  greatly  helpful  in  such  instances  as  aids 
in  storing  such  food. 

Shredding  fodder  means  tearing  it  into  strips  or 
shreds  by  machines  made  for  the  purpose.  It  is  used  only 
in  preparing  such  coarse  fodders  for  feeding  as  corn  and 
the  sorghums.  Shredders  husk  the  corn  and  separate  the 
ears  in  the  same  while  shredding  the  stalks.  Opinions  dif- 
fer greatly  as  to  the  value  of  shredding,  some  regarding 
them  with  much  favor,  and  others  who  have  used  them, 
have  ceased  to  use  them  longer.  These  differences  in  opin- 
ion are  due  largely  to  a  difference  in  the  conditions  under 
which  they  have  been  used.  They  can  be  used  with  more 
advantage  in  a  climate  naturally  dry  than  in  one  naturally 
moist,  as  in  the  former  the  shredded  fodder  is  much  less 
liable  to  spoil  through  fermentation  than  in  the  latter. 

Prominent  among  the  benefits  from  shredding  are  the 
following :  ( I )  The  corn  is  husked,  and  thus  made  avail- 
able for  feeding  as  desired,  which  may  not  be  possible  in 
the  absence  of  shredding.  (2)  The  fodder  is  put  in  that 
condition  which  insures  a  much  larger  consumption  of  the 


362  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

stalks,  and  (3)  it  makes  it  possible  to  store  the  fodder 
where  it  is  safe  from  injury  from  storms.  The  following 
are  chief  among  the  objections  to  shredding:  (i)  The  ac- 
cidents while  running  the  shredders  have  been  unusually 
numerous,  but  possibly  the  element  of  risk,  in  this  respect, 
may  yet  be  eliminated.  (2)  In  moist  climates  it  has  been 
found  difficult  to  keep  the  shredded  fodder  from  moulding. 
But  this  may  be  obviated  by  mixing  with  straw.  (3)  The 
expense  is  said  to  be  too  great  in  some  instances  at  least  to 
justify  the  outlay  and  (4)  the  lower  portions  of  the  stalks, 
when  very  large  and  coarse,  according  to  some  authorities, 
will  not  repay  the  energy  expended  in  digesting  them.  The 
difference  in  the  character  of  the  stalks  before  shredding 
as  coarse  or  fine,  probably  accounts  for  the  great  differences 
reported  in  the  amount  of  fodder  left  unconsumed  when 
fodder  is  shredded. 

Corn  fodder  is  sometimes  prepared  for  feeding  by  run- 
ning the  corn  while  yet  unhusked  through  a  threshing 
machine  on  the  approach  of  winter.  To  this  method  of 
handling  corn,  the  same  objections  apply  as  when  shredding 
it,  except  that  which  applies  to  cost.  But  in  addition  to 
these  objections  are  the  large  portions  of  stalk  unreduced, 
and  the  broken  condition  of  cob,  which  makes  it  difficult  to 
preserve  it. 

Blending  foods  mechanically. — Foods  are  frequently 
blended  in  what  may  be  termed  the  mechanical  sense,  in  or- 
der to  insure  a  larger  consumption  of  those  which,  though 
plentiful  are  less  palatable  than  the  foods  blended  with  them. 
The  utilization  for  food  of  the  straw  of  cereals  and  of  corn 
and  sorghum  stalks,  may  not  be  a  question  of  much  mo- 
ment at  the  present  time  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  the  time  is  coming  and  is  not  very  far  distant,  when  in 
none  of  the  states  will  such  products  be  destroyed  as  now, 
as  the  best  means  of  getting  rid  of  them. 

Where  the  supplies  of  hay  are  scarce  and  of  fodders 
plentiful,  when  both  are  run  through  a  cutting  box  and 
mixed  before  being  fed,  a  much  larger  consumption  of  straw 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  363 

or  of  corn  or  sorghum  stalks  will  be  secured,  than  if  these 
foods  had  not  been  so  prepared.  In  this  way,  animals  at 
rest  may  be  carried  through  the  entire  winter  season  on  rel- 
atively cheap  food.  Even  in  the  absence  of  hay,  when  pulped 
roots  are  mixed  with  cut  straw  and  other  coarse  fodders, 
results  equally  good,  if  not  indeed  superior,  will  follow,  de- 
pendent upon  the  proportion  of  field  roots  fed.  Should  the 
dry  food  thus  mixed  be  dampened,  as  by  sprinkling,  in  the 
absence  of  field  roots  and  a  small  amount  of  meal  sprinkled 
in  during  the  process  of  dampening  and  mixing,  the  con- 
sumption will  be  further  increased.  Where  molasses  is 
cheap,  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  this  ingredient  will 
tend  much  to  add  to  the  palatability  of  the  food  and,  there- 
fore, to  increase  the  possible  consumption  of  coarse  fodders. 

Food  prepared  as  outlined  above,  has  special  adapta- 
tion to  the  needs  of  cattle  and  horses.  It  is  not  so  well 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  sheep,  as  they  are  more  expert  than 
cattle  or  horses  in  rejecting  portions  even  of  the  cut  food 
that  may  not  suit  them,  but  even  with  sheep,  the  relative 
consumption  of  cheap  foods  may  thus  be  greatly  increased. 
Similarly  the  consumption  of  dry  fodders  by  swine,  as  clo- 
ver and  alfalfa,  may  be  much  increased  by  chaffing  the  fod- 
der, adding  meal  to  the  mixture  and  then  cooking  it  by 
boiling  or  steaming.  Thus,  also,  the  proportion  of  field 
roots  or  tubers  may  be  increased. 

The  following  method  of  preparing  food  for  ruminants 
is  common  in  some  portions  of  Ontario.  Hay  and 
straw  or  fodders  are  chaffed,  pulped  and  mixed  in  a 
feed  room  conveniently  situated.  The  chaffing  and 
pulping  are  done  simultaneously  that  the  mixing  of  the 
food  may  be  as  desired.  Enough  is  prepared  at  one  time 
to  last  for  several  days.  The  fermentation  which  follows 
tends  to  soften  the  fodder.  Meal  is  added  proportioned  to 
the  needs  of  the  various  animals  as  the  food  is  fed.  This 
method  of  feeding  is  economical  of  food  and  is  eminently 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  cattle,  sheep  and  horses. 


364  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Much  of  what  has  been  said  applies  mainly  to  the  feed- 
ing of  animals  at  rest.  Should  performance  be  sought  from 
them  as  in  the  production  of  increase  in  meat  or  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  or  labor,  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  add 
concentrated  food  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  the 
nutrients. 

It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  large  proportion 
relatively  of  the  nutrients  in  straw  and  coarse  fodders  are 
relatively  low  in  digestibility.  Because  of  this,  it  would  be 
easily  possible  so  to  tax  the  energies  of  the  system  by  feed- 
ing so  large  a  proportion  of  such  foods,  that  the  most  de- 
sirable results  would  not  follow.  This,  however,  is  much 
less  likely  to  occur  with  animals  that  are  being  simply  car- 
ried through  the  winter  at  rest. 

Blending  foods  chemically. — The  mechanical  blend- 
ing of  foods  discussed  in  the  preceding  section  did  not  in 
any  sense  consider  the  chemical  blending  of  the  same,  and 
yet  the  aim  should  be  so  to  blend  them,  that  the  ration  shall 
be  in  at  least  approximate  balance.  For  instance,  when  cut 
hay  is  added  to  the  cut  straw  of  the  small  cereals,  or  to  cut 
corn  or  the  sorghum  stalks,  the  aim  should  be  to  add  clover 
or  other  leguminous  hay,  as  the  straw  of  these  are  carbo- 
naceous. Likewise,  when  molasses  is  added,  the  aim  should 
be  to  make  the  addition  when  practicable  to  a  mixture  of 
cut  fodders  relatively  rich  in  protein,  as,  for  instance,  when 
composed  largely  of  pea  straw.  Field  roots  go  well  with 
straws  rich  in  carbohydrates  especially  when  fed  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  Steamed  potatoes  and  clover  or  alfalfa 
also  go  well  together  when  fed  to  growing  swine.  In  the 
absence  of  the  clover  or  alfalfa,  meal  rich  in  protein  should 
be  fed.  When  meal  is  added  to  enrich  the  ration  for  cattle, 
sheep  and  horses,  a  due  regard  should  always  be  had  to  the 
character  of  the  fodder.  Usually  it  will  be  advantageous  to 
add  meal  rich  in  protein  to  mixtures  composed  mainly  of 
straw  fodders  or  of  corn  or  sorghum  stalks. 

The  proportions  in  which  these  shall  be  added  cannot 
be  discussed  here.  The  aim,  of  course,  should  be  to  feed 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  365 

them  so  that  the  ration  shall  be  in  approximate  balance, 
and  yet  there  may  be  good  reasons  for  feeding  a  ration 
not  strictly  in  balance  (see  p.  187).  The  nature  of  the  ad- 
ditions will,  of  course,  be  dependent  on  the  ration.  Where 
leguminous  fodders  are  plentiful,  the  balancing  of  the  ra- 
tion is  usually  much  easier  than  when  the  opposite  is  true, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  great  food  grain,  corn,  is  so  rich 
in  carbonaceous  elements. 

Soaking  food  for  stock. — The  value  of  soaking  food 
for  stock  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  food,  the  kind  of  stock 
to  which  it  is  to  be  fed,  and  the  object  sought  from  feeding 
it.  As  a  rule  food  is  seldom  soaked  when  fed  to  horses, 
cattle  or  sheep,  but  is  very  frequently  soaked  when  prepar- 
ing it  for  swine. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  affirm  that  green  fodders  are 
never  soaked  to  prepare  them  for  being  fed  to  live  stock, 
and  the  same  is  generally  true  of  dry  fodders,  but  to  this 
there  are  some  exceptions.  When  horses  are  hard  at  work, 
it  has,  at  least  in  some  instances,  been  found  advantageous 
to  feed  meal  on  chaffed  and  moistened  hay,  as  when  so  fed 
the  food  could  be  more  quickly  consumed,  that  is,  more  of 
it  could  be  consumed  during  the  limited  time  allotted  to 
horses  for  feeding,  especially  during  the  noon  hour.  With 
cattle,  no  such  necessity  exists.  When  fodder  is  fed  dry, 
as  compared  with  feeding  it  soaked,  it  is  usually  preferred 
by  cattle  and  also  by  sheep,  and  it  is  amply  softened  in  the 
various  processes  of  digestion.  Such  food,  however,  will 
better  answer  the  end  sought  in  feeding  swine  if  it  is  first 
soaked  or  steamed.  Field  roots  and  tubers  also  being  of  the 
nature  of  green  fodders,  are  not  soaked  preparatory  to 
feeding  them,  but  in  many  instances  cereals  are  soaked 
either  in  the  unground  form  or  as  meal,  more  especially 
when  fed  to  swine. 

Grain  of  any  kind  is  seldom  soaked  for  horses  or  cattle, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  meal.  Bran  is  sometimes  made  into  a 
mash  for  horses  by  adding  water,  frequently  hot,  and  stirring 


366"  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

until  it  is  all  moistened.  They  can  eat  such  food  more  read- 
ily, and  so  fed  it  may  have  a  more  laxative  effect  with  them. 
It  was  believed  at  one  time  that  meal  moistened  and  even 
fed  as  slop  to  dairy  cows  tended  to  increase  the  yields  of 
milk.  It  cannot  be  said  that  tests  made  to  determine  the 
question  sustain  this  belief.  Corn  is  in  some  instances 
soaked  before  feeding  it  both  to  cattle  and  swine.  When 
long  fed  on  dry  ear  corn,  soreness  of  the  mouth  may  arise. 
In  such  instances  the  corn  should  be  shelled  and  soaked  for 
not  less  than  12  hours,  except  when  the  weather  is  unusu- 
ally warm.  Under  normal  conditions,  the  increase  from 
corn  soaked  24  hours  and  fed  to  swine  is  much  the  same  as 
when  dry.  All  the  small  cereal  grains  are  made  more  easy 
of  digestion  for  swine  by  soaking  them  from  12  to  48  hours, 
but  usually  the  results  are  more  satisfactory  when  they  are 
first  ground  before  soaking  them.  When  thus  prepared, 
there  is  practically  no  waste  in  feeding.  None  of  the  food 
escapes,  undigested,  as  when  feeding  it  whole,  and  a  larger 
consumption  of  food  is  usually  secured. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  apparent  that  when  food 
is  soaked  or  moistened  before  feeding  it  to  cattle  and 
horses,  the  objects  sought  are  specific  rather  than  general, 
and  that  they  are  thus  fed  more  because  of  the  exigencies 
present  in  the  feeding  than  because  of  the  more  favorable 
influence  which,  as  such,  they  exercise  on  digestion.  It  is 
different  with  swine.  They  digest  more  perfectly  food  thus 
prepared.  There  are  times,  however,  when  almost  any  kind 
of  a  cereal  may  be  fed  to  swine  unground  in  limited  quan- 
tities, as  when  fed  to  brood  sows  in  winter  on  a  hard  sur- 
face. 

Cooking  *oo^.  _or  stock. — Years  ago  the  cooking  of 
food  for  live  stock  was  thought  to  be  helpful  to  its  diges- 
tion. Because  of  the  prevalence  of  this  view,  large 
steaming  plants  were  erected  in  various  centers  where  it 
was  proposed  to  steam  practically  all  the  dry  food 
fed  to  cattle  before  it  was  fed.  Usually  it  was  first  run 
through  a  cutting  box  and  then  mixed  with  meal,  and  fed 


PREPARING  FOODS  FOR  FEEDING  367 

directly  to  the  stock.  The  fact  that  the  practice  has  been 
virtually  discarded  is  pretty  certain  evidence  that  it  did  not 
prove  profitable.  This  is  in  agreement  with  the  results  ob- 
tained from  the  tests  conducted  by  the  experiment  stations 
and  it  is  all  the  more  surprising  in  the  face  of  the  strong 
claims  put  forth  even  by  some  of  the  scientists  of  for- 
mer generations  as  to  its  value.  In  some  of  the  tests  made, 
the  cooking  of  the  food  seemed  to  reduce  rather  than  to  en- 
hance its  digestibility.  This  was  true  more  especially  of  the 
protein,  hence  the  adverse  effects  were  most  pronounced  in 
foods  rich  in  protein. 

Until  recent  years  this  practice  was  common  with  the 
exhibitor  of  cattle  to  prepare  the  food  for  them  by  chaf- 
fing the  hay,  and  after  adding  meal,  to  pour  over  the  mass 
while  still  hot,  such  food  as  boiled  peas.  The  box  or  trougli 
containing  the  food  was  then  covered  and  the  mass  allowed 
to  steam.  It  was  believed  that  such  food  added  to  the  mel- 
lowness of  the  flesh  and  probably  with  some  reason.  It  is 
pretty  certain,  however,  that  it  does  not  add  to  the  increase 
made,  and  it  does  add  materially  to  the  cost  of  feeding.  In 
these  facts  it  is  probable  that  the  explanation  lies  for  dis- 
carding, at  least  to  a  great  extent,  such  feeding  during  re- 
cent years. 

V^ears  ago  it  was  matter  of  common  belief  that  grain 
food  fed  to  swine  would  give  better  results  if  fed  in  the 
cooked  rather  than  in  the  soaked  form.  This  explains  why 
cooking  such  food  was  so  common  in  those  days.  But  ex- 
periments conducted  at  the  experiment  stations  have  rudely 
shattered  this  belief.  They  have  shown  that,  as  a  rule, 
cooked  meal  does  not  produce  greater  gains  than  soaked 
meal.  Nevertheless,  under  some  conditions,  as  when  the 
cooked  meal  may  be  fed  warm  in  cold  weather,  the  cooked 
food  is  superior  to  the  other.  The  added  value,  however, 
arises  rather  from  the  warming  effect  which  the  food  has 
upon  the  system  than  from  any  superior  digestibility  which 
it  possesses.  Under  such  conditions,  the  profit  from  cook- 
ing food  may  be  considerable.  It  is  also  true  that  certain 


368  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

grains,  as  barley  and  speltz,  will  give  better  returns  when 
cooked  or  steamed  than  when  fed  dry. 

Certain  vegetable  substances  may  be  improved  as  food 
for  swine  by  cooking  them,  for  the  reason  first,  that  they 
are  rendered  more  digestible  and  second,  that  thus  pre- 
pared, they  will  be  consumed  in  larger  quantities.  Pota- 
toes are  of  the  former  class.  Fed  alone,  they  are  an  indif- 
ferent food  for  swine,  but  when  cooked  and  fed  along  with 
meal  in  the  form  of  a  mash,  they  furnish  a  cheap  food  for 
growing  swine,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  food  nu- 
trients. Alfalfa  and  clover,  when  chaffed  and  mixed  with 
meal,  with  or  without  vegetables,  makes  a  good  food  for 
growing  swine  and  for  brood  sows.  A  limited  amount  of 
boiled  grain,  especially  barley,  possesed  of  much  water  rel- 
atively, poured  over  cut  fodder  to  soften  it,  and  then  fed  to 
horses  while  still  warm  two  or  three  times  a  week,  will  have 
a  helpful  influence  on  the  digestive  tract  when  the  horses 
are  on  dry  feed.  Whether  the  additional  labor  and  cost  of 
fuel  will  justify  such  feeding,  must  be  determined  by  the 
conditions  under  which  the  work -is  done.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  about  the  utility  of  the  practice  of  boiling 
hay  and  feeding  the  extract  thus  obtained  to  calves  when 
the  milk  supply  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  their  needs. 


PART  IV. 

The  more  important  of  the  considerations  that  relate  to 
successful  feeding  are  discussed  in  Part  IV.  These  consider- 
ations have  not  the  strength  of  law  and  yet  they  are  so  im- 
portant that  they  cannot  be  ignored  by  the  successful 
grower  and  feeder  of  live  stock.  The  benefits  from  having 
correct  type  in  the  animals  to  be  fed  and  from  feeding  a 
balanced  ration  based  on  a  wise  selection  of  foods,  will  be 
discounted  in  proportion  as  these  considerations  are 
ignored. 

They  are  discussed  as  outlined  below:  Chapter  XVII 
dwells  upon  considerations  that  relate  to  meat  production; 
Chapter  XVIII  on  those  that  relate  to  milk  production; 
Chapter  XIX  on  those  that  relate  to  general  feeding ;  Chap- 
ter  XX  on  those  that  relate  to  the  care  of  animals;  and 
Chapter  XXI  on  considerations  that  are  miscellaneous  in 
character. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

CONSIDERATIONS  THAT  RELATE  TO   MEAT 
PRODUCTION. 

Prominent  among  the  considerations  that  relate  to 
meat  production  are  the  following : 

1.  Increase  at  different  ages. 

2.  Increase  during  finishing  period. 

3.  Leading  up  to  full  feeding. 

4.  Food  consumed  and  increase. 

5.  Cost  of  increase. 

6.  Gains  when  fattening  not  worth  their  cost. 

7.  Duration  of  finishing  period. 

8.  Season  for  marketing. 

9.  Marketing  when  ripe. 

10.  Shipping  finished  animals. 

11.  Loss  of  weight  in  marketing. 

12.  Feeding  in  stalls,  sheds  or  yards. 

13.  Finishing  animals  on  pasture. 

14.  Financial  returns  from  purchased  feeders. 

15.  Baby  beef. 

1 6.  Winter  lambs. 

17.  Growing  bacon. 

These  are  discussed  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
given. 

Increase  at  different  ages. — It  has  been  stated  previ- 
ously (see  p.  64),  that  with  the  exception  of  swine  dur- 
ing the  nursing  period,  and  for  some  time  subsequent  to  it, 
domestic  animals  may  be  made  to  increase  more  rapidly  the 
nearer  to  the  birth  period  the  gains  are  made.  The  greater 
practical  importance  of  this  question  and  the  bearing  which 
it  has  upon  profits,  is  a  sufficient  justification  for  enlarging 
upon  it. 

The  figures  now  submitted  approximate  the  increase  in 
weight  that  may  be  obtained  from  the  different  classes  of 

371 


372  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

domestic  animals  at  different  ages :  It  has  been  found  easily 
possible  to  secure  2  pounds  of  increase  per  day,  not  in- 
cluding- the  birth  weight,  from  cattle  of  the  large  breeds  at 
the  age  of  one  year.  During  the  second  year  it  requires 
careful  feeding  to  secure  an  average  increase  of  one  and 
three-fourths  pounds  per  day,  and  during  the  third  year, 
equally  careful  feeding  to  secure  an  increase  of  one  and 
one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  per  day.  In  other 
words,  730  pounds  of  increase  can  be  secured  as  readily  as 
639  pounds  of  further  increase  the  second  year,  and  as,  say 
504  pounds  the  third  year.  It  would  be  approximately  cor- 
rect to  say  that  lambs  of  the  medium-sized  mutton  breeds 
of  sheep,  if  well  nourished,  will  make  a  daily  gain  of  0.7 
pound  during  the  first  month;  0.6  pound  during  the  first 
three  months ;  0.45  pound  during  the  second  three ;  0.3 
pound  during  the  third  three  and  0.25  pound  during  the 
fourth  three.  In  other  words,  including  the  birth  weight, 
the  lamb  will  attain  to  a  weight  of  21  pounds  at  one  month, 
and  of  54  pounds  at  three  months.  During  the  second  period 
it  will  gain  40.5  pounds,  27  pounds  during  the  third,  and 
223/2  during  the  fourth,  at  which  time  the  weight  will  be 
144  pounds.  The  subsequent  gains  will  gradually  decrease 
until  the  animal  is  mature.  With  well  sustained  swine  of 
the  middle  breeds,  it  would  be  approximately  correct  to  say 
that  during  the  first  70  days  of  growth,  about  the  average 
suckling  period,  the  pigs  would  make  an  average  daily  in- 
crease of  say  0.6  pound;  during  the  second  period  of  70 
days,  one  pound,  and  during  the  third,  one  and  one-half 
pounds.  In  other  words,  they  would  make  an  increase  dur- 
ing the  first  period,  including  the  birth  weight,  of  42 
pounds,  70  pounds  during  the  second  period,  and  105 
pounds  during  the  third,  when  they  would  weigh  217 
pounds  at  the  age  of  seven  months.  The  daily  gains  would 
probably  be  maintained  and  possibly  increased  for  a  month 
or  two  longer,  after  which  they  would  decline  until  matu- 
rity was  reached. 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  373 

The  figures  submitted  are  based  on  the  supposition 
that  the  animals  are  fed  to  their  full  capacity  on  suitable 
foods,  but  without  excessive  forcing.  It  pre-supposes  that 
the  foods  fed  are  suitable  for  the  production  of  the  highest 
average  gains  that  may  ordinarily  be  looked  for  from  such 
feeding.  But  in  practice,  such  feeding  is  seldom  followed 
during  the  entire  period  of  growing  and  rearing  the  ani- 
mal. In  fact,  it.  is  never  followed  except  when  very  high 
quality  meat  is  sought  from  animals  that  are  disposed  of  at 
ages  less  advanced  than  animals  of  the  same  class  usually 
reach  the  market.  This,  however,  does  not  apply  to  swine 
to  the  same  extent  as  to  sheep  and  cattle,  more  especially 
the  latter.  In  a  great  majority  of  instances,  during  what 
is  termed  the  growing  period,  animals  are  sustained  on  food 
less  costly  than  that  given  during  the  period  of  feeding 
milk  which  precedes  it,  and  the  fattening  period  which  fol- 
lows. Such  foods  include  pasture  and  coarse  fodders,  much 
of  which,  if  nor  consumed  thus,  would  be  wasted. 

The  conditions  amid  which  animals  are  grown,  will 
therefore,  have  a  markedly  important  influence  on  increase 
in  the  same,  as  it  actually  occurs  in  practice.  If  animals  are 
grown  so  as  to  make  only  moderate  gains  during  the  grow- 
ing period,  and  if  they  are  then  put  upon  a  finishing  ration, 
the  gains  made  will,  of  course,  exceed  those  made  at  a 
younger  age.  This,  however,  does  not  affect  the  contention 
that  the  possible  capacity  to  make  gains  is  greater  before 
than  during  the  finishing  period. 

The  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  the  capacity  to 
make  increase  in  weight  is  a  question  of  type  and  not  of 
breed.  The  statement  is  only  partially  correct.  It  is  to 
some  extent  a  question  of  breed,  and  also  to  some  extent 
a  question  of  individuality  within  both  breed  and  type. 
Take,  for  instance,  two  lambs  of  the  Southdown  and  Hamp- 
shire Down  breeds.  Push  the  growth  of  both  on  a  suitable 
forcing  ration  until  they  reach  the  age  of  12  months.  It 
would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  inherent  capacity  to 
make  increase  in  a  Hampshire  Down  lamb  would  carry  him 


3/4  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

to  a  weight  of  160  pounds  as  readily  as  inherent  capacity 
in  the  Southdown  would  carry  him  to  a  weight  of  120 
pounds  at  the  age  named.  The  same  line  of  reasoning  will 
apply  to  all  the  large  and  small  breeds  of  beef  and  dairy  cat- 
tle, the  large  and  small  breeds  of  sheep,  and  the  large  and 
small  breeds  of  swine.  But  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
the  difference  in  the  capacity  of  the  large  and  small  breeds 
to  make  increase,  lessens  as  the  birth  period  is  approached, 
and  widens  as  it  is  receded  from. 

Nor  is  it  true  that  increase  in  weight  during  the  finish- 
ing period  is  almost  wholly  a  question  of  type.  Individual- 
ity within  type  exercises  an  influence  on  capacity  to  make 
increase  only  secondary  to  that  exercised  by  type.  Animals 
of  similar  conformation  not  infrequently  show  a  difference 
in  capacity  to  make  increase  that  exceeds  50  per  cent, 
though  fed  alike.  It  will  also  be  found  true  that  animals  of 
the  small  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  and  of  some  breeds  of  sheep, 
as  the  American  Merino,  will  have  less  average  capacity  for 
making  increase  under  prolonged  feeding  than  heavier 
breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  the  same  is  true,  also,  of 
large  and  small  breeds  of  swine.  Capacity  to  make  gains, 
therefore,  is  influenced  by  age,  breed  and  individuality. 

Increase  during  the  finishing  period. — The  increase 
made  during  the  finishing  period  and  also  the  rate  at  which 
it  is  made  is  determined  by  such  conditions  as  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  The  age  of  the  animals;  (2)  their  condition  as  to 
flesh  when  put  on  feed;  (3)  the  nature  of  the  previous  feed- 
ing; (4)  the  character  of  the  food  fed;  (5)  the  intensity  of 
the  feeding  and  (6)  the  duration  of  the  feeding  period. 

That  animals  of  uncompleted  growth  have  capacity  'to 
make  larger  increase  than  those  whose  growth  is  com- 
pleted is  in  a  sense  self-evident.  The  latter  can  only  make 
increase  by  putting  on  fat,  whereas  the  former  make  it  by 
additional  growth  as  well  as  by  laying  on  fat.  They  may 
also  be  expected  to  make  it  more  cheaply  by  that  law  of  de- 
velopment which  claims  that  increase  can  be  made  more 
rapidly  and  cheaply,  the  nearer  to  the  birth  period  that  it 
is  made. 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  375 

It  is  also  evident  that  animals  that  are  low  in  flesh  or 
carry  but  a  moderate  amount  when  put  on  feed,  and  whose 
digestion  has  not  been  impaired,  will  make  more  gain  under 
prolonged  feeding  than  animals  in  good  flesh,  but  not  really 
fat  when  put  on  feed.  They  will  also  usually  make  such 
gains  more  rapidly  and  for  the  reason  among  others  that  -in 
the  system  there  is  more  room  for  increase. 

But  increase  during  the  fattening  period  is  increased  or 
retarded  by  the  nature  of  the  diet  given  previous  to  its 
commencement.  The  system  must  be  brought  into  what 
may  be  termed  a  sappy  condition,  that  is,  a  condition  in 
which  the  fluids  of  the  body  are  abundant  before  gains 
can  be  rapid.  It  must  be  amply  stocked  with  circula- 
tory protein.  It  has  been  found  that  swine,  for  instance, 
grown  largely  on  succulent  pasture  such  as  alfalfa  or  rape, 
will  make  subsequent  increase  more  rapidly  than  swine 
equal  in  weight  that  had  been  fed  chiefly  on  grain.  Some 
foods  that  cannot  be  classed  as  being  in  themselves  fatten- 
ing foods  are,  nevertheless,  highly  useful  in  putting  the 
system  in  a  condition  for  fattening.  Such  are  field  roots 
and  various  other  succulent  and  nutritious  foods. 

The  character  of  the  food  as  to  its  constituents,  influ- 
ences gains  in  a  marked  degree.  The  largest  increase  may  be 
expected  from  foods  fed  in  balance,  and  that  balance  will 
vary  with  the  needs  of  the  animal.  An  animal  of  incom- 
pleted  growth,  for  instance,  requires  more  of  protein  in 
the  food  than  one  of  completed  growth.  When  fattening 
only  is  wanted  without  growth,  this  will  be  best  attained 
by  a  ration  as  rich  in  carbohydrates  as  may  be  safely  fed 
for  the  purpose  sought. 

Intense  feeding,  that  is,  feeding  a  large  propor- 
tion of  concentrates  to  the  roughage  and  concentrates 
rich  in  the  nutrients  that  aid  in  producing  fat,  will 
produce  the  most  rapid  gains  when  properly  fed,  though 
not  necessarily  the  most  economical  gains.  Such  feeding 
also  tends  to  shorten  the  period  in  which  gains  are  made. 


376  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

The  richer  the  ration  and  the  more  intense  the  feeding, 
the  shorter  will  be  the  period  for  making  gains,  for  then 
that  condition  of  the  system  is  sooner  reached  when  quick 
increase  is  not  possible.  Such  feeding  judiciously  done, 
insures  more  rapid  increase  for  a  time  than  more  moderate 
feeding,  but  it  also  makes  increase  slower  when  the  feeding 
is  in  any  sense  prolonged. 

The  daily  increase  secured  does  not  necessarily  vary 
greatly  until  the  period  is  approached  when  animals  under 
judicious  feeding  are  coming  near  that  condition  of  finish 
known  as  ripeness  (see  p.  389).  Then  it  decreases,  it  may 
be  gradually  at  first,  but  with  accelerated  quickness  the 
longer  the  feeding  is  continued,  and  would  at  length  reach 
a  point  when  further  increase  would  altogether  cease. 

The  daily  gains  made  will  vary  with  the  variations  men- 
tioned above.  They  are  usually  from  the  nature  of  things 
most  rapid  during  short  periods  of  forced  fattening.  When 
good  cattle  well  grown  are  on  feed  for  150  days,  the  aver- 
age gain  for  the  entire  period  should  be  one  and  one-half 
to  2  pounds  per  day.  The  average  will  not  be  more 
than  one  and  one-third  pounds.  Young  animals  not  yet 
grown,  with  most  careful  and  suitable  feeding  may  make 
an  increase  of  2  pounds  per  day  or  even  more  than  that 
amount.  Cattle  fed  large  amounts  of  corn  for  100  to  120 
days  may  increase  even  more  rapidly,  but  usually  such  gains 
are  relatively  costly  when  corn  is  dear.  Aged  animals  usu- 
ally make  a  less  gain  than  one  and  three-quarters  pounds 
daily.  Lambs  of  good  types  between  six  and  12  months 
when  fed  for  100  to  120  days  will  make  a  daily  gain  under 
normal  conditions  of  fattening  of  0.3  pound  or  9  pounds  a 
month.  With  all  the  conditions  favorable  an  increase  of 
12  pounds  may  be  made,  but  such  gains  are  exceptional. 
Ordinarily  lambs  will  not  gain  more  than  0.25 
pound  daily  or  7%  pounds  per  month.  On  rape  pasture 
the  gains  should  be  10  pounds  per  month.  Mature 
wethers  may  gain  -as  quickly  as  lambs,  but  the  rate 
of  increase  will  not  be  so  long  maintained.  Swine 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  377 

when  fed  for  60  to  75  days  should  make  an  average  daily 
gain  of  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  pounds, 
providing  they  are  not  of  less  weight  than  150  pounds 
when  the  fattening  season  begins.  In  a  few  instances  a  gain 
of  2  pounds  per  day  has  been  made. 

Leading  up  to  full  feeding. — With  reference  to  this 
question,  it  may  be  said:  (i)  That  animals  which  are 
somewhat  thin  in  flesh  cannot  be  fattened  quickly  for  some 
time  after  the  commencement  of  the  fattening  period,  how- 
soever suitable  and  liberal  the  feeding  may  be;  (2)  that 
when  such  animals  are  first  put  on  a  fattening  ration,  they 
are  not  capable  of  digesting  quantities  of  concentrated 
foods  so  large  as  at  a  later  period  and  (3)  that  in  conse- 
quence, it  is  necessary  to  bring  them  up  gradually  to 
what  is  termed  full  feeding,  which  means,  feeding  all  the 
concentrates  and  roughage  that  the  animals  can  digest  and 
assimilate  after  having  been  given  gradually  increasing 
quantities  of  concentrates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
fattening  period  onward. 

As  explained  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby  in  the  "Manual  of 
Cattle  Feeding,"  cattle  that  are  much  reduced  in  flesh  and 
fat  cannot  be  fattened  quickly  until  they  are  first  brought 
into  a  well  nourished  condition.  The  animal  body  must 
first  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  organized  and  circula- 
tory protein,  without  which  it  cannot  digest,  resorb  and 
store  up  protein  and  fat.  To  bring  about  this  condition 
it  is  most  economical  usually  to  feed  freely  some  legumin- 
ous fodder,  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  This,  however,  may 
be  supplemented  with  some  grain  or  by-product,  or  the 
two  combined,  also  reasonably  rich  in  protein.  Such  foods  as 
oats  and  bran,  or  oats  and  oil  cake  are  well  adapted  to  such 
feeding.  The  aim  should  be  to  feed  foods  that  will  give  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  say  1 15.5.  Such  food  increases  the  stock  of 
Circulatory  protein,  and  thus  paves  the  way  for  laying  on 
fat. 

When  fattening  begins,  animals  are  not  capable  of  di- 
gesting and  assimilating  large  quantities  of  grain,  for  the 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

reason  chiefly,  that  the  digestive  system  requires  time  to 
accommodate  itself  to  the  changes  of  food,  and  also  to  the 
additional  tax  put  upon  it.  All  changes  should  be  gradually 
made  (see  p.  459).  Digestion  and  assimilation  in  a  certain 
direction  become  strengthened  by  use  or  repetition.  It  is 
evident  that  animals  accustomed  to  grain  previously  can 
be  more  quickly  led  up  to  a  full  ration  than  those  to  which 
it  has  never  been  fed.  In  some  instances,  as  when  growing 
baby  beef,  so  much  grain  is  being  fed  all  the  while,  that 
the  difference  in  the  respective  amounts  fed  before  and 
during  the  finishing  period  is  not  marked.  It  is  more  a 
difference  in  kind  than  of  quantity,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
cows  that  are  fattened  at  once,  when  they  cease  to  give 
milk.  If  undue  haste  is  shown  in  putting  animals  on  full 
feed,  the  digestion  becomes  deranged,  and  time  is  lost  in 
recovering  digestive  tone,  while  in  some  instances  it  is  never 
again  fully  restored. 

The  time  required  to  bring  the  different  classes  of 
animals  up  to  full  feed  varies.  It  is  longest  in  the  case  of 
cattle  and  shortest  in  that  of  swine,  in  keeping  with  the 
time  required  in  finishing  the  different  classes.  It  varies 
also  with  the  condition  of  the  animals  and  as  to  whether 
they  were  given  grain  previously,  and  especially  when  the 
finishing  period  began.  When  cattle  are  lean  and  unused 
to  grain,  from  3  to  4  pounds  would  suffice  at  the  first. 
This  may  usually  be  increased  at  the  rate  of  say  one 
and  one-half  to  2  pounds  per  week,  for  four  to  six  weeks 
according  to  the  kind  of  grain  fed  and  the  duration  of  the 
fattening  period.  The  less  concentrated  the  grain  fed  and 
the  shorter  the  prospective  period  for  feeding,  the  more 
quickly  may  the  animals  be  brought  up  to  full  feed,  and 
vice  versa.  As  the  fattening  progresses,  the  grain  fed  is 
usually  increased  in  the  degree  of  its  concentration  up  to 
a  certain  limit. 

Sheep  and  lambs  that  have  not  had  grain  previously 
may  be  given  say  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  a  pound 
of  grain  daily  at  the  first,  preferably  oats  or  mainly  so, 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  379 

and  this  may  be  increased  at  the  rate  of  one-third  of  a 
pound  per  week  from  three  to  six  weeks,  according  to  the 
kinds  of  food  fed,  the  age  of  the  animals  and  the  probable 
duration  of  the  feeding  period.  As  with  cattle,  the  grain 
fed  may  be  more  concentrated  as  the  fattening  progresses. 

Swine  may  usually  be  led  up  to  a  full  grain  ration 
much  more  quickly  than  cattle  and  sheep.  This  is  owing 
to  the  fact,  first,  that  grain  has  probably  been  fed  to  them 
all  along,  and  second,  that  before  the  final  fattening  be- 
gins, they  have  probably  been  given  not  less  than  half  a 
full  grain  ration.  In  but  few  instances,  therefore,  is  it 
necessary  to  take  more  than  one  to  two  weeks  to  bring 
them  up  to  a  full  grain  ration. 

Food  consumed  and  increase. — The  relation  between 
the  food  consumed  and  the  increase  from  it  widens  from 
birth  to  maturity,  that  is,  the  more  advanced  the  age  of  the 
animal,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  the  food  required  to 
make  the  increase.  That  it  should  be  so  is  the  outcome, 
first,  of  the  more  active  character  of  the  digestive  and 
assimilative  organs  near  the  birth  period;  and  second,  of 
the  increase  called  for  in  the  food  of  maintenance  as  the 
animals  grow  older.  That  it  should  be  so  is  what  may  be 
expected  from  the  gradual  decrease  in  relative  gains  in 
cattle  and  sheep,  as  the  birth  period  is  receded  from.  But 
it  has  also  been  found  true  with  swine,  where  the  daily  in- 
crease is  less  rapid  during  the  first  three  or  four  months 
than  subsequently. 

With  cattle  and  sheep  it  is  not  easy  to  draw  the  com- 
parison between  relative  increase  and  the  amount  of  food 
used  in  making  it,  between  animals  that  are  being  grown 
and  those  that  are  being  fattened,  owing  to  the  difference 
in  the  relative  proportion  of  grain  and  concentrates  fed 
to  these.  It  is  much  easier  to  draw  the  comparison  as  to 
relative  cost,  and  the  difference  in  cost  may  be  taken  as 
an  approximate  basis,  but  not  an  exact  basis  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  amounts  of  food  consumed.  In  "Profitable 


380  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

Stock  Feeding,"  Prof.  H.  K.  Smith  states,  that  in  six  dif- 
ferent trials  made  with  cattle,  each  100  pounds  of  increase 
made  during  the  first  12  months  cost  $3.45,  during  the 
second  12,  $7.42,  and  during  the  third  12,  $11.50.  At  the 
Kansas  experiment  station  it  was  found  that  steers  which 
were  being  fattened  consumed  730  pounds  of  grain  for 
every  100  pounds  of  increase  made  during  the  first  56  days 
of  feeding.  During  the  entire  period  of  feeding  which 
covered  182  days,  they  consumed  1,000  pounds  of  the  same, 
which  was  an  increase  of  practically  37  per  cent.  The 
testimony  of  other  experiments  is  in  keeping  with  the  above. 

The  average  results  from  several  trials  in  feeding 
lambs  which  weighed  approximately  75  pounds  when  put 
on  feed,  show  that  to  make  100  pounds  of  increase  calls 
for  approximately  500  pounds  of  grain  and  400  pounds  of 
hay.  To  make  similar  increase  with  shearlings  it  has  been 
found  that  from  25  to  45  per  cent  more  food  was  required. 
Similar  is  the  trend  of  testimony  of  the  American  Fat  stock 
shows.  Unfortunately,  however,  some  of  the  testimonies 
from  these  must  be  accepted  with  much  caution,  as  for  in- 
stance the  statement  that  in  1881,  a  Southdown  lamb  shown 
weighed  213  pounds  at  the  age  of  213  days,  which  means 
that  up  to  that  age  it  had  made  a  daily  gain  of  0.9  pound. 

In  Denmark  many  experiments  have  been  conducted 
by  the  Copenhagen  station  which  throw  light  upon  the 
relative  amounts  of  grain  or  its  equivalent,  consumed  by 
swine  of  different  ages  in  order  to  make  100  pounds  of  in- 
crease. A  large  number  of  animals  was  included  in  these 
experiments.  The  results  showed  that  pigs  weighing  35 
to  75  pounds  consumed  376  pounds  of  such  food  when 
making  100  pounds  of  gain,  while  pigs  weighing  195  to 
235  pounds  consumed  543  pounds  to  make  the  same.  The 
average  results  from  a  number  of  experiments  .conducted 
in  America  show  that  with  swine  not  more  than  50  pounds 
in  weight,  100  pounds  of  increase  may  be  made  from  each 
300  pounds  of  grain  and  grain  equivalents  fed,  while  with 
pigs  from  200  to  250  pounds,  about  500  pounds  of  the  same 
were  required  to  make  similar  increase. 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  381 

Of  course  the  relative  amounts  of  grain  consumed  by 
animals,  both  when  growing  and  during  the  finishing 
period,  will  be  influenced  by  the  amount  of  coarse  fodder 
fed,  whether  fed  in  the  green  or  dry  form.  The  assumption 
is  safe,  nevertheless,  that  to  finish  animals  properly  on 
grain,  the  amount  of  the  same  required  increases,  first,  with 
increase  in  the  age  of  the  animals,  and  second,  with  the 
continuance  and  prolongation  of  the  fattening  period.  This, 
however,  does  not  make  it  certain  that  long  periods  of  feed- 
ing will  be  attended  with  less  profit.  That  will  only  follow 
in  instances  where  the  degree  of  the  finish  is  not  superior 
in  character. 

Cost  of  increase. — It  has  been  shown  that  animals  as 
a  rule  make  gains  more  slowly  as  the  birth  period  is  re- 
ceded from  (see  p.  371).  It  has  also  been  shown,  that 
notwithstanding  the  slower  gains,  more  food  relatively  and 
absolutely  is  consumed  in  making  them,  and  that  this  al.^o 
applied  to  the  fattening  period  (see  p.  379).  It  naturally 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  cost  of  increase  is  greater  as  the 
birth  period  is  receded  from,  and  as  the  fattening  period 
advances.  But  to  this  there  are  some  exceptions,  especially 
during  the  growing  period,  as  is  shown  below. 

Many  instances,  all  based  on  experiment,  may  be  cited 
to  show  increasing  cost  in  the  gains  made  with  increasing 
age.  The  following  only  can  be  given  here:  At  the  Wis- 
consin experiment  station,  it  was  found  that  with  animals 
up  to  the  age  of  12  months,  100  pounds  of  beef,  live  weight, 
cost  $4.20,  while  with  the  same  animals  during  the  next 
12  months,  it  cost  $6.13.  At  the  Massachusetts  station, 
With  animals  in  the  two-year  form,  100  pounds  of  beef,  live 
Weight,  cost  $7.49,  and  with  the  same  animals  in  the  three- 
year  form,  it  cost  $12.38.  At  the  Iowa  experiment  station 
lambs  that  were  fattened  cost  $3.61  for  every  TOO  pounds  of 
live  increase  made,  and  wethers  on  the  same  feed  cost  $5.33 
for  each  100  pounds  of  the  same.  At  the  Wisconsin  experi- 
ment station,  swine  which  averaged  222  pounds  when  put 
on  feed  consumed  418  pounds  of  meal  to  make  100  pounds 


382  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

of  increase  the  first  four  weeks  of  feeding,  461  pounds  the 
second  four,  and  559  pounds  the  third  four.  The  difference 
in  relative  cost  was  proportionate. 

Under  some  conditions,  however,  it  is  possible  to  make 
100  pounds  of  increase  more  cheaply  at  some  distance  from 
the  birth  period,  and  also  from  the  commencement  of  the 
fattening  period,  than  earlier.  The  growing  of  young 
animals,  especially  cattle,  during  the  milk  period,  is  more 
costly  relatively  than  at  a  later  period,  because  of  the 
difference  in  the  relative  value  of  the  foods.  Milk  and 
grain  furnish  the  principal  portion  of  the  food  of  young 
animals  for  a  time.  Later  they  are  usually  maintained  on 
coarser  and  cheaper  foods,  more  especially  on  pasture.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  increase  may,  therefore,  be  made  more 
cheaply  on  the  coarser  food  thus  given,  because  of  its 
relative  cheapness,  notwithstanding  the  increase  in  the 
amount  consumed.  Likewise  when  cattle  are  partly  fat- 
tened on  dry  food  and  are  then  finished  on  grass  or  grass 
and  grain,  the  increase  made  on  the  latter  may  be  made 
more  cheaply  than  that  made  before  turning  out  on  grass. 
At  the  Iowa  experiment  station,  it  was  found  that  from 
March  to  May,  covering  92  days,  steers  fed  on  a  ration  of 
corn  meal,  oil  meal,  hay  and  roots,  made  100  pounds  of 
increase  at  a  cost  of  $5.93.  The  same  steers  maintained 
for  a  similar  period  immediately  following  on  a  ration 
of  corn  meal  and  clover  pasture  made  similar  increase  at  a 
cost  of  $4.31. 

The  cost  of  increase  varies  with  variations  in  the  cost 
of  food.  Because  of  this,  the  same  class  of  meat  will 
cost  much  more  in  one  locality  than  another.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  during  recent  years  the  cost  of  making  100 
pounds  of  increase  during  the  fattening  period  was  from 
$2  to  $3  more  than  the  cost  of  the  same  in  the  Mississippi 
states. 

Gains  when  fattening  not  worth  their  cost. — During 
the  finishing  period,  the  increase  made  is  more  or  less  in- 
fluenced by  the  following  conditions,  viz :  ( i )  The  in- 
dividuality of  the  animal;  (2)  the  stage  in  development  at 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  383 

which  the  fattening  begins;  (3)  the  amount  of  flesh  carried 
at  the  time;  (4)  the  cost  of  the  foods  used;  (5)  the  char- 
acter of  the  feeding  and  finish  made  and  (6)  the  relative 
value  of  the  fertilizer  resulting. 

Individuality  is  a  most  potent  influence  in  hastening  or 
retarding  increase.  That  it  is  so  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 
two  animals  of  similar  age  and  fed  alike  will  differ  greatly 
in  the  gains  made,  though  consuming  practically  the  same 
amount  of  food.  This  difference  sometimes  exceeds  50 
per  cent 

The  stage  in  development  at  which  fattening  begins 
influences  the  cost,  first,  by  the  greater  relative  increase 
made  by  animals  that  are  not  yet  matured,  by  the  less 
amount  of  food  required  to  make  these  gains,  and  by  the 
greater  relative  cost  of  maintenance  in  mature  animals. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  immature  animals  should  make 
greater  and  cheaper  gains  than  those  that  are  mature. 

The  less  flesh  that  animals  carry  when  the  fattening 
begins,  providing  leanness  is  not  carried  to  the  point  of 
weakening  the  bodily  functions,  the  more  they  will  in- 
crease in  weight,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  more  room 
for  such  increase.  But  of  course  the  less  flesh  carried 
when  fattening  begins,  the  more  prolonged  must  be  the 
period  of  fattening,  a  fact  which  may  go  far  to  offset  the 
consideration  first  named  when  purchasing  animals  for 
fattening. 

No  influence  is  more  potent  in  determining  relative 
cost  of  increase  in  fattening  than  the  relative  cost  of  the 
foods  fed.  It  will  be  at  once  apparent  without  argument 
that  with  the  same  foods,  cost  in  the  gains  made  will  fluctu- 
ate with  cost  in  the  foods  fed. 

Forced  feeding  beyond  a  certain  degree  will  result  in 
a  waste  of  food.  On  the  other  hand  under-feeding  will  result 
in  loss  through  increased  cost  in  the  food  of  maintenance. 
Reasonably  liberal  feeding,  therefore,  is  likely  to  give  the 
best  results.  The  character  of  the  finish  influences  cost  of 
increase  so  far  as  it  influences  the  price  paid  for  the  fin- 
ished product. 


384  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

The  value  of  the  fertilizer  made  is  a  factor  of  much 
importance  in  some  localities,  in  other  places  it  is  not  ati 
important  consideration.  While  of  course  it  does  not  in- 
fluence gains,  it  does  influence  profits,  and  just  in  proportion 
to  the  grade  of  the  fertilizer  made  and  the  relative  value 
of  the  same  in  the  locality. 

Usually  the  increase  during  the  fattening  period 
costs  more  than  it  will  sell  for  in  the  market.  This  gener- 
ally holds  true  in  fattening  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  but  to 
a  less  degree  probably  in  swine  than  in  the  other  classes 
named.  Such  increase  in  fattening  mature  cattle  usually 
costs  not  less  than  I  to  3  cents  per  pound  more  than  it  will 
sell  for  in  the  market.  But  to  this  there  are  some  ex- 
ceptions as  when  the  price  of  foods  is  relatively  low  and 
that  of  meat  relatively  high.  The  same  is  true  also  in  many 
instances  of  growing  baby  beef,  under  normal  conditions 
because  of  the  quick  gains  made  by  the  animals.  The 
testimony,  however,  of  nearly  all  experiments  in  fattening 
live  stock  in  this  country  have  shown  that  the  cost  of  in- 
crease during  the  fattening  season  has  been  greater  than 
the  cost  of  the  food. 

Wherein  is  the  profit  from  fattening  live  stock  under 
such  conditions?  It  arises  from  the  increase  in  the  value 
of  each  pound  of  the  live  weight  of  the  animal  when  the 
fattening  began.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  steer  is 
purchased  and  put  on  feed.  Suppose  that  he  weighs  1,200 
pounds  live  weight  and  costs  4  cents  per  pound ;  suppose  that 
the  increase  in  weight  from  six  months  feeding  is  300 
pounds,  each  pound  of  which  costs  6  cents  to  make  it.  The 
steer  when  finished  is  sold  for  5  cents  per  pound  live  weight. 
Allowing  the  manure  made  to  offset  the  cost  of  feeding 
and  other  incidental  expenses,  the  transaction  will  stand  as 
follows:  $75  the  selling  price  when  finished,  less 
$48  the  purchase  price,  less  $18  the  cost  of  increase 
during  fattening,  leaves  $9  as  the  net  profit 
from  the  transaction.  But  what  of  the  cost  of  grow- 
ing the  steer  up  to  the  time  of  fattening?  It  should 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  385 

be  considerably  less  than  4  cents  per  pound,  lor,  if  grown 
on  the  range,  he  would  be  grown  virtually  on  free  pasture. 
If  grown  under  extensive  farm  conditions  he  would  be 
grown  largely  on  cheap  pastures.  If  grown  under  more 
intensive  conditions  he  would  be  grown  largely  on  coarse 
and  cheap  foods. 

Duration  of  the  finishing  period. — Since,  during  the 
finishing  period,  the  cost  of  increase  made  during  its  con- 
tinuance seldom  equals  in  value  the  cost  of  the  food  used  in 
making  it,  the  time  covered  by  this  period  becomes  a 
question  of  prime  importance  to  the  feeder.  Its  profitable 
duration  will  be  influenced  by  such  considerations  as  :  ( I ) 
The  condition  as  to  flesh  of  the  animals  when  the  feeding 
period  begins;  (2)  the  character  of  the  food  fed;  (3)  the 
intensity  of  the  feeding;  (4)  the  relative  cost  of  the  food; 

(5)  the  season  of  the  year  when  the  finishing  occurs,  and 

(6)  capacity  in  the  animals  for  making  high  finish. 

If  animals  are  in  a  low  condition  of  flesh  when  the 
feeding  period  begins,  it  is  manifest  that  a  proportionately 
longer  period  must  elapse  before  they  can  be  profitably 
sent  to  the  block,  than  if  they  were  in  good  flesh  at 
the  same  time.  Animals  low  in  flesh  when  fatten- 
ing begins  cannot  be  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
finish  in  a  short  time.  The  digestive  powers  can  adjust 
themselves  only  giadually  to  the  changed  conditions  of 
feeding,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  assimilative  powers. 
This  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  animals  will  digest  and  ap- 
propriate much  larger  quantities  of  concentrated  food 
without  injury  when  on  what  is  termed  "full  feed,"  than 
when  the  feeding  period  begins  (see  p.  377).  In  some 
instances,  as  in  making  baby  beef  sold  under  the  age  of  two 
years,  the  feeding  has  been  of  such  a  high  character  all 
along,  that  the  transition  to  what  may  be  termed  the  finish- 
ing period  is  scarcely  discernible  through  any  increase  in 
feed  (see  p.  402). 

Some  kinds  of  food  bring  to  a  finish  much  more  quickly 
than  others,  because  of  their  constituents.  Corn  will  fatten 


386  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

animals  more  quickly  probably  than  any  other  cereal,  and 
when  fed  in  large  quantities  it  will  ripen  them  sooner.  A 
ration  consisting  mainly  of 'roots  and  grain  will  not  fatten 
so  quickly  as  one  consisting  mainly  of  corn  and  dry  fodder. 
Similar  differences  may  be  thus  shown  in  various  other 
foods  used  in  fattening. 

The  intensity  of  the  feeding  exercises  an  important 
influence  on  the  length  of  the  feeding  period.  Intensity 
of  feeding  has  reference  to  strong  feeding.  It  means  feed- 
ing concentrates  rich  in  nutrients  for  producing  fat,  and 
feeding  to  the  full  capacity  of  the  animal  to  take  such  food. 
But  little  roughage  is  fed.  Such  feeding  leads  to  increase 
more  quickly  than  feeding  concentrates  less  rich,  or  if  rich, 
in  moderate  quantities,  and  along  with  these  feeding  con- 
siderable quantities  of  roughage.  But  it  also  leads  more 
quickly  to  cessation  of  profitable  increase,  and  the  attendant 
danger  is  greater  that  the  .derangements  in  digestion  will 
be  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  when  feeding  is  less 
intense. 

The  value  of  foods  in  relation  to  meat  values  should 
always  be  considered.  When  food  values  are  high  and 
meat  values  low,  the  shorter  the  period  of  feeding  within 
reasonable  limits,  the  greater  will  be  the  relative  profit. 
Seasons  do  occur,  but  usually  at  rare  intervals,  when  finish- 
ing is  not  attended  with  any  profit,  unless  when  it  can 
be  accomplished  through  some  cheap  food  such  as  grass. 

Capacity  in  the  animals  to  make  a  high  finish  and 
to  furnish  a  carcass  that  will  command  a  high  price  is  also 
important.  When  a  steer  for  instance  of  dairy  form  is 
placed  upon  the  market  in  high  finish  and  sells  for  more 
than  one  cent  less  per  pound  live  weight  than  the  steer  of 
orthodox  type  in  equally  high  finish,  it  is  very  evident  that 
it  will  not  pay  equally  well  to  bring  the  former  to  so  high 
a  finish  as  the  latter.  The  great  advantage  in  high  finish 
from  the  latter  comes  from  the  advance  in  value  which  it 
puts  upon  every  pound  of  the  weight  possessed  when  the 
finishing  period  began  (see  p.  384).  The  advance  thus 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  387 

made  in  the  value  of  the  animal  of  dairy  conformation  is 
much  less  as  markets  have  ruled  during  recent  years,  not- 
withstanding that  at  least  as  large  amounts  of  food  rela- 
tively will  be  consumed  in  making  it.  It  is  less  necessary 
therefore  because  less  advantageous,  to  feed  such  animals 
and  also  aged  cows,  ewes  and  sows  for  long  periods,  that 
they  may  thus  be  brought  to  a  high  finish,  than  to  feed 
well  furnished  animals  with  the  same  end  in  view.  But 
a  certain  amount  of  feeding  with  them  is  necessary,  that 
they  may  bring  a  respectable  price. 

The  season  of  the  year  at  which  the  finishing  period 
draws  near  should  also  be  duly  weighed.  If  the  finishing 
process  draws  near  toward,  or  at  the  close  of  the  grazing 
season,  it  would  be  better  to  close  it  then  than  to  continue  it 
only  for  a  short  period  on  food  so  radically  different  as  a 
change  from  grass  to  dry  food  would  involve,  or  if  the  finish 
was  nearly  completed  when  grass  arrives  and  to  complete 
it  would  involve  turning  the  animals  out  to  grass  for  a  short 
period,  it  would  be  better  to  close  it  with  the  end  of  the 
dry  feeding  season  (see  p.  397). 

It  will  be  apparent  from  the  above,  that  the  duration 
of  feeding  periods  cannot  be  definitely  stated  so  many  are 
the  conditions  that  cause  them  to  vary.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  cattle  can  seldom  be  finished  properly  in 
less  than  120  days,  sheep  in  less  than  70  days,  and  swine 
in  less  than  40  days,  and  that  high  finish  seldom  calls  for 
more  than  180  days  of  feeding  with  cattle,  120  days  with 
sheep  and  60  days  with  swine.  More  commonly  feeders 
err  on  the  side  of  unduly  curtailed  feeding,  accompanied 
by  lack  of  finish  than  on  that  of  feeding  unduly  prolonged 
and  accompanied  by  over-finish.  The  aim  should  be  to 
bring  good  animals  to  high  finish,  unless  there  are  good 
reasons  for  not  so  doing.  It  has  been  estimated  by  competent 
authorities,  that  from  75  to  90  per  cent  of  the  cattle  mar- 
keted in  the  United  States  are  not  properly  finished. 

Season  for  marketing. — The  grower  and  feeder  of 
live  stock  should  aim  as  far  as  it  may  be  practicable  to 


388  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

have  them  ready  at  that  season  which  will  enable  them 
to  reach  the  market  in  the  absence  of  a  glut  in  the  same, 
or  even  in  the  absence  of 'supplies  sufficiently  plentiful  to 
cause  considerable  depression  in  values.  The  exercise  of 
timely  forethought  will  usually  make  this  feasible. 

There  are  two  seasons  when  the  values  of  the  common 
classes  of  meat  arc  usually  low.  The  first  is  that  period 
covered  by  the  entire  season  beginning  with  the  middle  of 
September,  and  extending  over  a  considerable  portion 
of  January  following.  The  second  is  embraced  within  the  first 
and  includes  more  particularly  the  holiday  season  during 
which  poultry  to  a  considerable  extent  substitutes  the  use 
of  other  kinds  of  meat.  Only  the  best  classes  of  beef  and 
mutton  at  such  times  command  good  prices  relatively. 

Two  classes  of  persons  are  compelled  to  sell  at  such 
seasons.  The  first  is,  ranchmen  who  may  be  unable  to  finish 
stock  because  of  the  entire  absence  of  finishing  foods  which 
may  not  be  shipped  in  because  of  cost.  The  surplus  stock 
must  be  disposed  of  at  the  approach  of  or  during  the  au- 
tumn. The  second  class  includes  all  farmers  who  may  not 
have  the  necessary  food  or  necessary  conveniences  to  enable 
them  to  finish  surplus  stock  at  home.  So  large  and  so 
constant  is  the  supply  from  these  two  sources,  at  the  sea- 
sons named,  that  it  has  a  depressing  influence  on  values. 
But  it  may  be  more  profitable  to  market  animals,  as  sheep 
which  make  a  late  finish  -on  such  foods  as  rape,  at  such  a 
season,  than  to  attempt  to  further  finish  them  on  dry  food 
involving  greater  relative  cost. 

The  values  of  meat  are  relatively  higher  at  all  other 
times  of  the  year  than  those  named,  but  there  are  seasons 
that  are  especially  favorable  to  marketing  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  relatively  high  values  for  meat.  These 
include  the  late  months  of  spring  and  all  the  summer 
months.  But  during  those  months  lighter  animals  are 
wanted  and  more  especially  when  the  weather  becomes 
hot. 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  389 

The  individual  who  has  high  class  meat  and  of  weights 
inclining  to  light  at  such  seasons  may  expect  good  values 
for  it.  But  to  meet  the  conditions  named  requires  fore- 
thought all  along  the  line  of  development,  and  more  es- 
pecially with  reference  to  the  duration  of  the  finishing 
period. 

What  may  be  termed  timeliness  in  marketing  is  of 
much  moment  to  the  producer  of  live  stock.  Christmas 
beef  must  be  of  high  quality  and  ready  at  the  proper  season. 
Milk  lambs  will  ordinarily  bring  higher  values  in  the  inter- 
val between  Christmas  and  Easter  than  at  an  earlier  or  a 
later  season.  When  ready  earlier  they  must  be  sold 
when  supplies  of  meat  are  excessive.  When  marketed 
later,  they  must  compete  with  early  spring  lambs.  Heavy 
weight  animals  of  all  kinds  usually  command  the  best 
prices  when  the  weather  is  cool  or  cold.  While  light 
weight  animals  of  good  finish  are  in  demand  at  all  times, 
they  are  most  prized  during  the  warm  season.  Swine  mar- 
keted in  the  spring  usually  sell  at  higher  rates  than  those 
sold  in  the  fall,  but  they  also  cost  more  to  produce  them. 

Marketing  when  ripe. — Ripeness  as  applied  to  live 
stock  is  a  relative  term.  In  one  sense,  it  may  mean  mar- 
keting, when  ready  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  certain  market, 
in  the  absence  of  completed  growth  and  even  of  high  finish, 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  amount  of  fat  carried. 
Winter  lambs  are  ripe  when  plump  and  fat  at  weights 
running  from  35  to  45  pounds.  Baby  beef  is  ripe,  when  well 
grown  for  the  age  and  fat,  at  weights  varying  from  900  to 
1 200  pounds  in  the  yearling  form.  Bacon  swine  are  ripe 
when  they  attain  to  weights  varying  from  160  to  220  pounds 
and  carry  but  a  moderate  amount  of  fat.  In  another  sense, 
ripeness  means  that  stage  of  development  reached  by  ani- 
mals that  are  being  fattened,  when  they  become  incapable 
of  making  increase  proportionate  to  the  food  fed  to  them. 
This  latter  is  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  more  commonly 
used. 


390  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

When  animals  become  thus  ripe,  it  is  self-evident  that 
further  feeding,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  increase, 
will  be  done  at  a  loss,  hence  the  wisdom,  under  normal 
conditions,  of  putting  them  on  the  market  promptly  when 
they  are  ripe.  When  animals  are  being  fattened,  the  in- 
crease as  a  rule  is  less  rapid  as  the  fattening  period  ad- 
vances, and  the  cost  of  making  increase  continually  ad- 
vances. In  fattening  steers  at  the  Kansas  experiment  station 
for  182  days,  it  was  found  that  during  the  first  56  days,  730 
pounds  of  food  were  required  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain, 
while  for  the  whole  period  1,000  pounds  were  required  tc 
make  the  same.  At  the  Wisconsin  experiment  station,  swine 
that  were  being  fattened  made  100  pounds  of  gain  during  the 
first  four  weeks  from  418  pounds  of  food,  during  the  second 
four  from  461  pounds,  and  during  the  third  four  from 
559  pounds.  The  average  weight  at  the  commencement  was 
222  pounds.  In  an  experiment  conducted  by  the  author  in 
fattening  swine,  at  the  Ontario  experiment  station,  1890-91, 
it  was  found  that  during  the  experiment  proper  which 
covered  90  days,  the  cost  of  making  100  pounds  of  increase 
was  $4.65.  The  swine  were  then  regarded  as  finished,  but 
they  were  fed  for  47  days  longer  on  the  same  kind  of  a 
ration.  During  this  period,  the  cost  of  making  100  pounds 
of  increase  was  $14.93.  The  average  weight  of  the  swine, 
when  the  experiment  proper  began,  was  150  pounds.  If 
such  feeding  is  continued  long  enough,  increase  will  entirely 
cease,  and  in  time  retrogression  will  begin,  on  the  principle, 
that  after  ripeness,  deterioration  begins. 

Prominent  among  the  indications  of  ripeness  are  a  good 
covering  of  flesh  on  parts  more  usually  bare,  firmness  of 
flesh  as  indicated  by  resistance  to  gentle  pressure  in  the 
muscles  of  the  body,  and  a  plumpness  of  form  which  reveals 
a  finished  condition  to  the  practiced  eye.  The  weight  scale, 
of  course,  is  the  surest  indicator  of  that  decrease  or  cessation 
of  growth  that  accompanies  ripeness  and  the  service  that  it 
may  thus  render  when  used  judiciously  may  be  very  sub- 
stantial. 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  391 

The  necessity  for  selling  animals  promptly  as  soon  a.; 
finished  should  certainly  be  given  due  regard.  It  wouLl 
not  seem  justifiable  to  hold  them  longer  in  any  instance, 
except  to  avoid  marketing  in  a  glut  or  when  advance  in  price 
within  a  short  time  is  practically  assured.  By  exercising 
proper  forethought,  they  will  be  made  ready  so  that  they 
may  reach  the  market  when  prices  for  such  meat  are  usu- 
ally relatively  good. 

Shipping  finished  animals. — Since  live  stock  have,  in 
very  many  instances,  to  be  shipped  long  distances  to  the 
market,  both  as  stockers  and  in  the  finished  form,  and 
since  the  condition  in  which  they  reach  the  same  materially 
influences  the  sale,  it  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  the 
shipper  that  they  reach  the  place  of  consignment  under  con- 
ditions that  will  be  attended  with  a  minimum  of  shrinkage 
and  loss  of  bloom.  To  secure  these  results  requires:  (i) 
That  they  shall  be  fed  properly  in  preparing  them  for  ship- 
ment and  when  in  transit;  (2)  that  the  transit  shall  be  as 
rapid  as  possible  and  (3)  that  they  shall  be  promptly  un- 
loaded and  cared  for  when  they  reach  the  place  of  consign- 
ment. 

Before  shipping  finished  cattle  and  sheep,  the  usual 
grain  allowance  should  be  reduced  gradually  and  materially, 
for  two  to  three  days  before  shipping,  and  in  transit  may 
cease  altogether.  Hay  of  good  quality  should  be  supplied 
and  in  quantity  as  much  as  they  will  consume.  If  they  are 
on  pasture  and  also  receiving  grain,  they  should  be  yarded 
a  day  or  two  before  shipping,  and  fed  hay,  the  grain  al- 
lowance also  being  reduced.  Stockers  may  be  taken  from 
well  matured  pastures  and  shipped  at  once.  The  continued 
full  feeding  of  grain  before  shipping  finished  animals,  in 
connection  with  the  more  than  usual  amount  of  exercise, 
and  the  excitement  resulting  from  changed  conditions,  is 
much  liable  to  result  in  scouring.  This  means  much  shrink- 
age in  weight  and  a  soiled  appearance.  Bedding  should  be 
plentifully  supplied  before  loading.  Unless  driven  far  before 
loading,  in  a  warm  atmosphere,  animals  will  not  drink  to 
excess  when  fed  as  indicated. 


392  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

When  loaded,  the  transit  should  be  as  rapid  as  possible. 
This  of  course  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  carriers,  but  it  may 
be  materially  influenced  by  the  choice  of  season  made  by  the 
shipper,  when  traffic  is  not  congested.  Every  additional 
hour  spent  on  the  road  means  additional  shrinkage,  as  ani- 
mals will  not  eat  or  drink  freely  when  in  transit  by  rail. 
When  shipped  long  distances,  the  animals  will  take  less 
harm  if  hurried  on  to  the  place  of  sale,  than  if  the  journey 
is  prolonged  by  unloading  at  feeding  stations  every  24 
hours.  Experience  has  shown  that  runs  considerably  longer 
than  24  hours  conduce  to  the  well  being  of  the  cattle  by 
reducing  the  time  in  transit,  thus  shortening  the  period  of 
privation,  notwithstanding  the  contrary  view  held  by  many 
humane  societies.  Watchfulness  is  necessary  on  the  part 
of  the  attendant,  especially  in  case  of  sheep  lest  they  should 
get  down  and  suffer  injury  by  being  trodden  on,  especially 
in  crowded  cars.  Overcrowding  of  cars  is,  of  course,  a  mis- 
take, but  no  harm  comes  from  filling  cars  to  their  full  capa- 
city. In  shipping  long  distances  weather  probabilities 
should  be  considered  at  certain  seasons.  A  blizzard  may 
cause  serious  loss  in  transit,  and  the  same  is  true  of  ex- 
cessive heat,  especially  in  the  case  of  swine. 

Delay  in  unloading  is  avoided  when  the  animals  have 
been  consigned  to  a  commission  firm  when  shipped.  The 
aim  should  be  to  unload  them  not  later  than  8  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  before  the  buyers  make  their  rounds,  and  hay 
and  water  should  be  present  in  ample  supply.  Any  effort 
to  induce  the  animals  to  drink  excessively  by  giving  salt 
previously  or  by  withholding  water,  is  to  be  deprecated. 

Loss  of  weight  in  marketing. — The  extent  to  which 
finished  animals  shrink  in  weight  on  the  way  to  market  is 
influenced  chiefly:  (i)  By  the  time  occupied  in  transit; 
(2)  the  foods  used  in  fattening  and  the  degree  of  the 
finish;  (3)  the  age  of  the  animals;  (4)  the  extent  to  which 
they  have  been  exercised  while  being  fattened  and  (5)  the 
character  of  the  weather. 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  393 

The  time  occupied  in  the  journey  from  the  feed  lot  or 
other  place  of  fattening  to  the  market  is  probably  the  most 
potent  influence  in  causing  shrinkage,  even  though  the  ani- 
mals should  be  rested,  fed  and  watered  on  the  way.  This 
arises  from  the  little  inclination  which  they  evince  to  take 
food  or  water  while  in  transit.  The  rate  of  the  shrinkage, 
however,  decreases  with  increase  in  the  time  occupied  in 
conveyance,  as  the  more  prolonged  the  journey,  the  less  the 
amount  of  food  and  water  is  there  in  the  digestive  organs 
to  pass  out  of  the  system. 

The  more  succulent  the  foods  used  in  fattening  and 
the  less  the  degree  of  the  finish,  the  greater  will  be  the  loss 
of  live  weight  in  transit  on  the  supposition  that  the  animals 
are  given  fair  treatment  on  the  way.  Of  course  if  the 
animals  were  driven  to  market,  the  more  perfect  the  finish, 
the  greater  would  be  their  distress  in  traveling,  and  this 
might  result  in  a  greater  loss  in  weight.  The  flesh  of  ani- 
mals fed  watery  foods,  such  as  succulent  grass  and  field 
roots,  contains  a  higher  per  cent  of  water  than  that  of  ani- 
mals brought  to  high  finish  on  dry  foods,  and  this  is  more 
readily  lost  than  the  fat  in  the  system. 

Young  animals  lose  more  in  transit  relatively  than 
animals  that  are  mature  and  that  are  possessed  of  an  equal 
degree  of  finish.  This  arises  first,  from  the  larger  per  cent 
of  water  in  the  system  of  the  former,  and  second,  from  the 
greater  relative  activity  of  the  excretory  organs.  But  this 
tendency  may  to  some  extent  be  counteracted  by  the  greater- 
power  possessed  by  young  animals  to  accommodate  them- 
selves to  disturbing  conditions. 

The  extent  to  which  animals  exercise  while  being  fat- 
tened exerts  a  marked  influence  on  the  shrinkage  in  transit. 
Cattle  finished  in  yards  or  feed  lots  will  shrink  much  less 
than  those  tied  in  the  stall  and  given  but  little  or  no  ex- 
ercise. Wethers  fattened  on  alfalfa  hay,  wheat,  corn  and 
roots  at  the  Colorado  experiment  station  shrank  9  per  cent 
of  the  live  weight  in  transit  to  the  Chicago  market.  Se- 
lected lambs  shrank  9.4  per  cent,  and  lighter  and  more  active 
Mexican  sheep  shrank  but  6.5  per  cent. 


394  FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 

The  more  comfortable  the  weather  is,  the  less  will 
animals  lose  in  transit.  Where  they  must  be  driven  several 
miles  to  the  shipping  point  the  character  of  the  weather  is 
of  much  moment.  If  it  is  warm,  the  journey  should  be 
made  in  the  night.  In  the  experience  of  the  author,  fat 
steers  weighing  between  1400  and  1500  pounds  lost  on  an 
average  75  pounds  each  in  a  journey  of  15  miles  made  in 
the  night. 

While  it  is  not  possible  to  state  exactly  the  amount  of 
shrinkage  from  shipping  finished  animals,  it  will  be  more 
or  less  of  an  approximation  to  say  that  cattle  loaded  one 
day,  the  next  day  occupied  in  transit,  and  the  third  day  sold 
and  weighed,  will  shrink  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of 
5  per  cent  of  the  live  weight,  sheep  about  4  per  cent  and 
swine  4  to  5  per  cent.  Locally,  cattle  are  sometimes  pur- 
chased on  the  basis  of  a  shrinkage  of  4  to  5  per  cent  on 
the  weight  in  the  stall  or  feed  lot. 

Feeding  in  stalls,  sheds  or  yards. — Looking  at  this 
question  from  the  standpoint  of  theory  only,  the  conclusion 
would  be  reached  that  the  largest  and  also  the  cheapest 
gains  would  be  made  from  feeding  in  the  stall  as,  when 
thus  fed,  the  animals  are  kept  absolutely  at  rest  and  the 
individual  wants  of  each  animal  as  to  food  may  be  exactly 
met.  Until  recent  years,  the  view  was  almost  universal 
that  feeding  cattle  in  the  stall  would  be  attended  with  the 
greater  profit.  The  trend  of  the  results  obtained,  how- 
ever, from  the  experiments  conducted  is  rather  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  Of  course  the  attempt  is  never  made  to 
feed  sheep  or  swine  in  the  stall.  The  former  are  almost 
invariably  fed  in  sheds  under  average  farm  conditions,  and 
are  given  access  to  well  bedded  yards  at  will.  The  latter 
are,  in  nearly  all  instances,  finished  in  pens  under  cover, 
and  are  given  access  to  small  yards  at  will.  But  both  sheep 
and  swine  are  in  some  instances  finished  on  certain  kinds  of 
pasture. 

The  chief  arguments  in  favor  of  finisning  in  the  stall 
are  the  following:  (i)  The  food  fed  can  be  controlled 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  395 

at  will.  Where  it  is  desired  to  feed  a  relatively  large  pro- 
portion of  roughage  to  concentrates  on  the  ground  of  econ- 
omy, this  is  more  easily  accomplished  than  when  animals 
are  fed  together  in  a  wholesale  way.  In  such  feeding  to 
animals,  not  confined  in  the  stall,  the  stronger  would  get 
more  than  their  rightful  share  of  the  concentrates,  and 
the  weaker  less.  (2)  The  food  can  be  more  perfectly  ad- 
justed to  the  needs  of  each  animal.  It  frequently  happens 
that  some  variation  in  the  kind  and  quantity  of  food  fed 
is  helpful  to  the  individual  animal.  This  cannot  be  con- 
trolled when  animals  are  fed  loose.  (3)  The  temperature 
can  be  more  perfectly  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the  animals, 
as  undue  cold  may  thus  be  excluded,  and  in  this  way  un- 
necessary waste  avoided.  (4)  The  degree  of  the  exercise 
can  be  so  completely  controlled  that  no  energy  will  be 
thus  wasted  at  the  expense  of  the  food.  (5)  The  resultant 
fertilizer  can  be  saved  without  waste  where  an  ample  supply 
of  litter  is  used. 

The  chief  arguments  in  favor  of  finishing  in  the  shed 
or  yard  are  :  ( I )  The  saving  effected  in  the  labor  of  feed- 
ing. This  cannot  be  gainsaid,  as  the  difference  equals  that 
which  results  between  doing  work  in  a  wholesale  and  retail 
way.  (2)  The  saving  in  the  labor  of  handling  the  manure. 
This  is  an  important  item.  It  is  to  some  extent  offset  under 
certain  conditions  by  the  leaching  which  takes  place  in  open 
yards  in  times  of  heavy  rainfall,  but  this  may  be  largely 
prevented  by  restricting  the  size  of  the  yards  and  supplying 
ample  litter.  Manure  made  under  cover  with  an  ample 
supply  of  litter  by  animals  at  liberty  is  of  the  best,  as  it 
conserves  all  the  liquid  portion  and  does  not  suffer  loss 
readily  by  excessive  fermentation.  (3)  Experience  has 
shown  it  to  result  in  a  majority  of  instances  in  larger 
returns  absolutely  and  relatively  in  proportion  to  the  food 
fed.  This  reason  is  very  potent.  That  it  is  so  arises 
probably  from  the  fact  that  the  more  exercise  taken  by  the 
animals  at  liberty  causes  them  to  take  more  food,  which 


3Q6  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

results  in  greater  relative  gains  through  the  saving  ef- 
fected in  the  food  of  maintenance,  and  probably  also 
through  the  more  perfect  assimilation  of  the  nutrients.  This 
increase  is  more  than  sufficient  to  overcome  the  increase;! 
loss  of  bodily  heat  by  the  animals  that  are  loose,  since  they 
are  more  exposed  to  the  cold.  Animals  confined  are  fre- 
quently allowed  to  become  too  warm  and  the  discomfort 
resulting  is  adverse  to  their  gains. 

To  secure  the  best  results,  however,  from  feeding  cattle 
loose,  it  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  following  con- 
ditions should  all  be  present :  ( i )  They  should  be  horn- 
less, either  naturally  or  made  so  to  prevent  bodily  injury. 
(2)  They  should  be  fed  under  cover,  unless  in  climates 
quite  mild  and  dry.  (3)  The  concentrated  food  should  be 
fed  in  mangers  in  which  the  animals  could  be  kept  in 
place  by  stanchions  adjusted  by  one  movement  of  a  lever 
until  the  meal  is  consumed.  In  this  way  the  amount  of 
meal  fed  could  be  virtually  controlled.  Unless  fed  thus, 
the  strong  may  get  more  than  their  rightful  share.  (4) 
The  yards  should  be  small  and  kept  well  bedded  to  avoid 
unnecessary  leaching  of  the  manure.  The  litter  should  be 
sufficiently  ample  to  prevent  discomfort  to  the  animals  when 
at  rest,  either  from  the  presence  of  frozen  lumps  or  of 
miry  or  even  unduly  saturated  conditions. 

Finishing  animals  on  pasture. — In  the  discussion  of 
this  question  the  following  points  necessarily  come  up  for 
consideration :  ( i )  The  degree  of  the  finish  that  may  be 
expected  from  pasture  alone;  (2)  the  season  for  finishing 
to  secure  the  greatest  profit;  (3)  the  amount  of  grain  that 
may  be  used  with  highest  profit  in  supplementing  pastures ; 
(4)  the  relative  profit  from  such  finishing  and  (5)  the 
mistake  of  finishing  on  sparse  pastures. 

The  degree  of  the  finish  that  may  be  expected  from 
pastures  is  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  pastures  and 
duration  of  the  pasturing  period.  Some  pastures  furnish 
decidedly  more  nutriment  than  others  in  proportion  to  the 
food  consumed.  The  short  pastures  of  the  western  ranges 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  397 

are  proverbial  for  their  fattening  properties.  All  grass 
pastures  are  better  adapted  for  finishing  when  reasonably 
well  advanced  in  growth  than  earlier  in  the  season,  notwith- 
standing that  early  growth  when  abundant  may  produce 
more  weight.  Grasses  alone,  therefore,  will  not  produce 
high  finish  ori  a  period  of  grazing  that  does  not  cover  sev- 
eral months.  Nor  will  it  give  so  perfect  a  finish  as  when 
grain  is  fed,  as  is  evidenced  in  the  extent  to  which  range 
cattle  are  purchased  and  placed  in  feed  lots  for  further 
finishing,  after  having  grazed  on  the  .ranges  during  much 
of  the  entire  season. 

The  season  for  finishing  to  secure  the  greatest  proiit 
will,  of  course,  vary  with  such  conditions  as  the  flesh  car- 
ried when  the  grazing  begins,  the  influence  of  the  season 
on  growth  and  on  the  markets  for  meat.  It  would  seem 
correct  to  say  that  the  aim  should  be  to  finish  grazed  cattle 
not  later  than  September,  when  they  have  been  given  a 
grain  supplement,  and  not  later  than  July  when  they  have 
been  given  a  reasonable  grain  portion  from  the  beginning 
of  the  previous  winter  onward.  After  September  the  mar- 
kets are  frequently  over-supplied  with  meats  of  somewhat 
inferior  ades,  which  has  a  depressing  influence  on  the 
same. 

The  amount  of  grain  that  may  be  fed  with  highest 
profit  to  cattle  on  pasture  will  vary  with  the  age  of  the 
animals,  their  condition,  the  nature  of  the  pasture,  and 
the  price  of  grain.  The  younger  the  animal  up  to  maturity, 
the  leaner  when  grazing  begins,  and  the  more  sparse  the 
pasture,  the  greater  is  the  necessity  for  feeding  grain  and 
the  larger  the  amount  required.  The  cheaper  relatively 
that  grain  is,  of  course,  the  greater  is  the  profit  from 
feeding  it.  Clearly  then,  it  is  impossible  to  formulate  any 
hard  and  fast  rules  that  will  serve  as  infallible  guides  to 
those  who  finish  animals  on  grass.  The  best  feeders  are 
not  in  agreement  on  this  question. 

The  following  conclusions  based  on  the  experience  of 
practical  feeders  and  on  the  results  of  trials  made  at  the 


398  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

experiment  stations,  would  seem  to  be  correct:  (i)  That 
when  cattle  are  turned  out  on  grass  to  be  finished  not 
later  than  mid-summer,  the  grain  ration  given  to  them 
before  the  grazing  season  should  be  continued,  and  in- 
creased if  necessary.  (2)  That  when  cattle  are  to  be 
grazed  through  the  season  and  sold  from  off  the  grass  in 
finished  form,  it  is  questionable  if  the  grain  fed  for  two  or 
three  months  while  the  pastures  are  at  their  best  will  give 
an  adequate  return,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  in- 
crease in  weight,  but  as  soon  as  the  grasses  begin  to  fail 
the  reverse  of  this  is  true.  (3)  That  the  profit  will  probably 
be  found  greater  relatively  when  a  light  grain  ration 
is  fed  to  animals  grazing,  rather  than  a  full  ration  of  the 
same,  as  grass  is  relatively  cheaper  than  grain.  It  should 
also  be  noted,  that  when  estimating  the  result  from  feeding 
^rain  on  pastures,  the  influence  exerted  on  the  increase  in 
the  weight  of  the  animal,  on  the  quality  of  the  meat  and  on 
the  saving  effected  in  the  pasture  should  be  considered. 

Whether  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  feed  grain  lo 
sheep  that  are  being  fattened  on  pastures  has  not  been  made 
the  subject  of  experiment  to  any  ve^y  great  extent  in  this 
country.  The  necessity  for  so  doing,  and  the  advantage 
from  the  same  will  probably  be  based,  ( i )  on  the  character 
of  the  pasture;  (2)  on  the  shortness  of  the  period  in  which 
the  fattening  is  to  be  done  and  (3)  on  the  extent  to  which 
fertilizers  have  to  be  purchased.  Sheep  and  lambs  may 
be  finished  in  good  form  on  well  matured  rape  in  60  to  90 
days  from  the  commencement  of  the  grazing.  In  the 
experience  of  the  author  feeding  a  grain  supplement  to 
lambs  thus  grazed  did  not  secure  enough  additional  in- 
crease to  cover  all  the  cost  of  the  grain.  Notwithstanding, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  a  light  grain  supplement,  run- 
ning from  y*  to  i  pound  per  animal,  per  day,  is  to  some 
extent  a  safeguard  against  certain  digestive  troubles  that 
are  liable  to  affect  sheep  thus  grazed,  more  especially  after 
hoar  frost  begins  to  settle  on  the  rape,  it  would  not  be 
thus  fed  at  a  loss.  When  fattened  on  clover  or  amid  grain 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  399 

stubbles,  from  y2  to  I  pound  of  some  such  grain  mixture 
as  corn  and  oats  would  be  a  necessity  for  quick  finishing. 
When  large  sums  are  paid  out  annually  for  commercial 
fertilizers,  to  feed  such  a  supplement  freely  as  corn  and 
oil  cake  to  sheep  while  being  grazed  on  arable  pastures, 
would  probably  be  found  one  of  the  cheapest  possible 
methods  of  securing  fertility.  It  is  doubtless  correct  to  say 
that  a  light  grain  supplement  fed  to  immature  swine  on 
pasture  will  prove  profitable  in  all  instances  in  which  the 
grazing  does  not  consist  of  mature  grain.  Growing  swine 
cannot  consume  enough  pasture  to  insure  quick  growth. 
The  amount  of  the  supplement  will  vary  with  the  size  of 
the  swine  and  the  character  of  the  pasture,  but  it  is  ap- 
proximately correct  to  say  that  not  less  than  half  the 
amount  of  grain  should  be  fed  that  would  be  necessary  if 
the  swine  were  wholly  dependent  on  grain. 

The  relative  profit  from  finishing  stock  on  pasture  with 
a  grain  supplement  as  compared  with  the  same  under  con- 
fined conditions  has  been  made  the  subject  of  experiment, 
and  the  conclusions  reached  favor  the  view  that  more 
profit  results  from  finishing  thus  on  pasture.  This  view 
is  doubtless  correct  where  the  conditions  favor  such  grazing 
but  the  fact  remains,  nevertheless,  that  very  much  of  the 
live  stock  fattened  must  continue  to  be  so  fattened  in  the 
winter  season,  otherwise  much  coarse  food  would  be 
vasted  that  is  now  turned  to  excellent  account. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  try  and  finish  live  stock  on 
sparse  pastures,  even  when  a  grain  supplement  is  in  ample 
supply,  owing  to  the  over  abundant  expenditure  of  energy 
on  the  part  of  the  animals  in  searching  for  grass,  which, 
when  succulent,  is  always  appetizing.  Such  expenditure 
would  be  at  the  expense  of  supplemental  food.  But  it  may 
be  in  order  to  feed  breeding  or  store  animals  a  supplement 
of  grain  rich  in  the  elements  of  fertilization.  When  the 
object  is  to  enrich  the  land  as  well  as  to  benefit  the  animals, 
sheep  are  best  adapted  to  such  feeding,  because  of  the 
even  way  in  which  their  droppings  are  distributed,  and 


4OO  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

the  small  amount  of  loss  that  accompanies  such  distribu- 
tion. It  would  also  be  a  mistake  to  require  animals  that 
are  being  fattened  to  consume  closely  shock  corn  fed  on 
grazing  lands  in  the  autumn.  The  aim  should  be  to  have 
two  pastures,  and  to  allow  store  cattle  and  swine  to  glean 
after  the  animals  that  are  being  fattened.  The  two  classes 
of  animals  would  thus  be  alternated  from  day  to  day.  Like- 
wise it  would  be  a  mistake  to  compel  swine  that  are  be- 
ing finished  on  unharvested  corn  or  peas,  to  glean  closely. 
That  should  be  done  by  store  swine  that  are  admitted 
later. 

Financial  returns  from  purchased  feeders. — When 
animals  are  purchased  for  feeding,  the  financial  results 
from  fattening  them  will  be  influenced:  (i)  By  the  age 
at  the  time  of  purchase;  (2)  by  the  weight;  (3)  by  the 
condition  as  to  the  flesh  they  carry;  (4)  by  the  value  of 
the  food  fed  and  the  duration  of  the  feeding  period,  and 
by  the  difference  between  the  price  paid  at  the  time  of 
purchase  and  received  at  the  time  of  sale. 

It  has  been  shown  (see  p.  371),  that  animals  young 
and  immature  make  greater  increase  when  being  fattened 
than  mature  animals.  But  age  also  influences  market  val- 
ues more  or  less.  Of  course  with  all  animals,  there  is  an 
age  below  which  the  market  demands  them  only  in  limited 
numbers  and  to  meet  some  special  need,  as  in  the  case  of 
"milk  lambs''  and  "baby  beef;"  but  when  this  age  is  past, 
the  younger  the  animals  are  when  put  on  feed,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  larger  are  the  profits  likely  to  be,  not  only 
because  of  the  greater  and  cheaper  increase  made,  but 
because  of  the  higher  relative  price  which  such  animals  bring 
when  sold.  With  cattle  the  highest  price  and  widest  sale 
are  made  by  animals  from  say  1,200  to  1,400  pounds  when 
finished;  with  sheep  from  90  to  100  pounds;  with  the  lard 
types  of  swine,  from  200  to  250  pounds,  and  with  the 
bacon  types,  from  160  to  200  pounds.  In  former  years 
animals  much  heavier  were  more  in  favor. 


MEAT     PRODUCTION  40 1 

When  animals  are  being  fattened,  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  profit  usually  made  comes  from  the  increase  in 
value  of  each  pound  of  the  live  weight  at  the  time  of 
purchase  (see  p.  384).  Theoretically,  therefore,  the  high- 
est profit  should  come  from  animals  which  weigh  the  most, 
but  to  this  there  is  the  offset;  first,  that  animals  lighter 
because  younger  gain  more  on  less  feed,  and  second,  that 
they  usually  sell  for  more,  relatively,  when  finished.  It  is 
probably  true  that  generally  more  is  paid  relatively  per 
pound  for  the  lighter  animals,  which  so  far  offset  the 
"eturns. 

It  has  been  shown  that  condition  as  to  the  amount  of 
flesh  carried  by  animals  when  put  upon  feed  influences 
gains  (see  p.  377).  But  it  usually  influences  profits  in 
another  way,  that  is,  through  the  lower  price  for  which 
such  animals  can  be  purchased.  Because  of  this,  more 
profit  is  sometimes  made  from  feeding  animals  so  mature 
that  they  are  no  longer  profitable  for  breeding  uses.  When 
cattle  are  purchased  young  and  lean,  in  the  opening  of  the 
grazing  season,  they  usually  make  large  gains  relatively 
and  give  profitable  returns  for  the  season's  grazing  be- 
cause of  the  light  weight  of  the  sparely  covered  frame  at 
the  time  of  purchase 

The  influence  of  the  cost  of  food  is  discussed  on 
page  382.  The  duration  of  the  finishing  period  is  largely 
influenced  by  such  considerations  as  the  flesh  condition 
when  the  animals  are  put  on  feed,  by  the  relative  cost 
of  food  and  the  finished  product  resulting  from  it,  and 
by  the  comparative  fitness  of  the  animals  for  medium 
or  high  finish.  The  higher  the  condition  of  animals  when 
fattening  begins,  the  shorter  relatively  is  the  period  re- 
quired in  which  to  finish  them  and  vice  versa.  The  sav- 
ing thus  effected  in  the  food  of  maintenance  may  go  far 
to  offset  the  difference  in  cost  between  lean  and  less  lean 
animals  when  purchased  for  feeding.  The  higher  the 
value  of  the  foods  fed  and  the  lower  the  value  of  the 
finished  product,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  curtailing 


4O2  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

the  period  of  feeding  and  vice  versa.  The  less  fitness 
possessed  by  the  animals  for  making  a  high  finish,  the 
shorter  relatively  should  be  the  feeding  period  and  the 
higher  the  degree  of  such  fitness,  the  more  may  it  be  pro- 
longed under  normal  conditions,  as  high  finish  usually  in- 
sures a  high  selling  value. 

The  difference  between  the  price  paid  for  animals 
when  bought  for  fattening  and  when  sold  as  finished, 
probably  exercises  a  greater  influence  on  returns  than  any 
single  influence  which  bears  on  the  fattening  process.  The 
difference  between  the  buying  and  selling  price  to  insure 
profit  from  fattening  animals,  especially  sheep  and  swine,  is 
influenced  by  the  character  of  the  animals,  the  cost  of 
foods  and  the  nature  of  the  feeding.  In  this  very  com- 
plicated and  many-sided  problem,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  better  the  class  of  animals,  the  younger  they  are,  the 
cheaper  the  foods  and  the  cheaper  the  system  of  finishing, 
the  narrower  may  be  the  margin  of  difference  between 
buying  and  selling  values.  Finishing  on  grass  with  a 
supplement  of  concentrates  is  usually  cheaper  than  finish- 
ing on  dry  food  (see  p.  397).  With  dry  fodders  worth 
%  to  y2  cent  a  pound,  and  concentrates  at  i  cent 
a  pound,  some  net  profit  should  be  made  when  the 
margin  of  difference  between  the  buying  and  sell- 
ing prices  is  i  cent  per  pound  live  weight.  Considerable 
profit  should  result  when  it  is  1*4  cents  and  a  good  profit 
when  it  is  il/2  cents. 

Baby  beef. — During  recent  years  the  production  of 
what  is  termed  "baby"  beef  has  increased  materially.  The 
discussion  of  the  question  involves  the  consideration  of  the 
following:  (i)  What  is  baby  beef?  (2)  The  objects 
sought  in  growing  it  and  (3)  where  and  how  it  should  be 
grown  ? 

Baby  beef  may  be  defined  as  beef  made  from  animals 
subsequently  to  the  milk  period  and  not  yet  two  years 
old.  The  animals  are  kept  growing  rapidly  from  birth 
and  are  then  marketed  in  a  high  condition  of  flesh,  more 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  403 

commonly  in  the  one-year  form,  and  between  the  ages  of 
15  and  21  months.  The  term  has  also  been  applied  to 
animals  marketed  when  a  little  beyond  the  age  of  two 
years,  but  clearly  it  should  not  be  so  applied,  as  animals 
beyond  that  age  may  be  made  to  produce  carcasses,  approx- 
imating average  carcass  weights. 

The  following  are  chief  among  the  objects  sought 
from  growing  baby  beef: — (i)To  meet  the  demand  for 
well  finished  carcasses  of  light  weight  and  possessed  of 
quality  that  commands  ready  sale.  Such  meat  is  juicy  and 
tender;  (2)  to  prevent  the  over-stocking  which  may  result 
from  maintaining  meat  making  animals  of  a  more  mature 
age.  Such  overstocking  may  easily  occur  both  on  the  range 
and  on  the  arable  farm;  (3)  to  secure  increase  from  a 
minimum  expenditure  of  food,  on  the  principle  that  in- 
crease calls  for  more  food  to  make  it  as  the  birth  period 
is  receded  from. 

Baby  beef  can  only  be  finished  on  the  arable  farm 
or  under  arable  farm  conditions,  although  its  growth 
may  be  commenced  and  maintained  on  the  range  up  to  the 
weaning  period.  Dropped  in  the  spring,  the  calves  are  pur- 
chased when  weaned,  pushed  rapidly  onward  and  disposed 
of  during  the  following  summer.  Localities  in  which  corn 
and  alfalfa  or  corn  and  clover  grow  abundantly,  have  high- 
est adaptation  for  such  feeding,  since  they  furnish  grow- 
ing and  fattening  foods  in  balance  and  cheaply,  but  in  all 
localities  where  growth  is  abundant,  baby  beef  may  be 
grown  from  start  to  finish. 

On  the  arable  farm  two  methods  of  growing  baby 
beef  have  been  followed.  By  the  first,  the  calves  are 
dropped,  preferably  in  the  autumn  or  early  winter,  reared 
upon  their  dams,  pushed  rapidly  forward  by  generous  grain 
feeding,  subsequently  to  weaning,  and  marketed  the  second 
spring  from  the  stall  or  what  may  usually  be.  preferable, 
from  the  pastures  of  early  summer,  a  season  when  such 
meat  is  much  in  demand.  Animals  reared  thus  will  prob- 
ably bring  more  profit  usually  in  the  two-year  form,  since 


404  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

the  proportion  of  cost  to  be  charged  against  the  dam  will 
be  materially  less.  By  the  second  method,  they  are  reared 
essentially  on  skim  milk  and  adjuncts,  the  adjuncts  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  concentrated  foods  and  high  class  fodders. 
Baby  beef  from  this  source  will  be  scarcely  equal  to  that 
from  calves  that  were  suckled  by  their  dams,  but  it  will  be 
made  more  cheaply,  as  none  of  the  cost  is  to  be  charged 
against  the  dam,  since  maternity  in  her  case  was  necessary 
to  bring  her  into  milk,  and  its  cost,  therefore,  would  have 
to  be  incurred,  regardless  of  what  would  become  of  the 
calf. 

The  grain  during  the  milk  period  in  the  case  of  hand- 
reared  calves,  ought  to  contain  not  less  than  33  per  cent 
of  fattening  food,  such  as  corn,  barley  or  rye  from  the 
first,  when  the  fodders  are  leguminous,  and  this  propor- 
tion should  be  materially  increased,  for  several  months 
previous  to  the  disposal  of  the  animals.  Where  non-legu- 
minous fodder  must  be  relied  on,  the  protein  equivalents 
being  purchased,  as  oil  cakje  and  such  foods,  the  cost  of 
production  will  be  materially  increased.  The  necessity  for 
an  ample  supply  of  protein  when  growing  such  meat  is  well 
brought  out  in  an  experiment  conducted  by  the  Nebraska 
experiment  station  in  1904.  When  yearling  steers  were 
fed  alfalfa  and  corn,  the  daily  increase  was  1.97  pounds. 
When  fed  prairie  hay  and  corn  it  was  1.35  pounds.  The 
net  profit  with  the  former  was  $8.66,  with  the  latter  38 
cents.  The  test  covered  a  period  of  six  months. 

Winter  lambs. — By  winter  lambs  is  meant  lambs  that 
are  born,  say  from  November  I  onward  until  mid-winter, 
and  are  pushed  forward  rapidly  in  their  growth  and  are 
then  sold  while  yet  suckled  by  their  dams.  The  aim  should 
be  to  have  them  fill  the  place  in  the  market  between  the 
time  of  abundant  fowl  consumption  at  the  Christmas  season 
and  the  ordinary  season  for  selling  early  spring  lambs.  To 
bring  the  relatively  high  prices  usually  paid  for  them,  they 
should  be  made  plump  and  fat  and  to  reach  40  to  50 
pounds  in  live  weight  at  the  age  of  60  to  80  or  90  days. 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  405 

To  raise  winter  lambs,  or  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
milk  lambs,  successfully,  the  following  requisites  must  be 
present,  viz: — (i)  Ewes  that  will  drop  lambs  at  the  proper 
season;  (2)  quarters  sufficiently  protected  to  shield  the 
young  lambs  from  harmful  exposure;  (3)  food  suitable  in 
kind  and  ample  in  quantity  and  (4)  facilities  for  marketing 
with  dispatch  and  on  easy  call.  If  any  of  these  are 
lacking,  the  success  of  the  work  will  be  proportionately 
increased. 

The  breeds  at  present  in  this  country  which  have 
the  habit  of  dropping  lambs  in  the  late  autumn  or  early 
winter  are  the  Dorset  and  the  Tunis  and  high  grades  of 
these.  If  lambs  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  breeds  are 
crossed  upon  common  females  of  breeding  more  or  less 
mixed,  the  habit  of  producing  lambs  at  the  desired  season 
may  be  engrafted  on  the  progeny  in  a  limited  number 
of  generations.  The  change  may  be  facilitated  by  judicious 
feeding  and  selection.  Experiments  conducted  by  the 
author  at  the  Minnesota  station,  showed  that  in  two  gen- 
erations of  such  breeding,  the  change  was-  secured  in  a 
majority  of  instances. 

As  in  northern  climes,  winter  lambs  are  dropped  in 
weather  that  is  usually  more  or  less  severe,  it  is  necessary 
in  growing  them  to  have  shelter  provided  sufficiently  warm 
to  protect  the  young  lambs  from  hazard  through  exposure 
until  they  are  a  few  days  old.  Such  shelter  may  be  pro- 
vided by  a  basement  of  a  barn,  dry,  airy  and  sunny,  or  by  a 
lambing  pen  or  house  built  or  fitted  up  for  such  use.  As 
soon  as  the  lambs  are  well  started,  it  is  not  especially 
necessary  that  they  shall  be  kept  in  quarters  much  warmer 
than  would  be  suitable  for  a  breeding  flock,  but  of  course 
temperatures  lower  than  a  certain  degree  will  retard  in- 
crease and  will  make  it  more  costly.  The  dams  should 
be  in  reasonably  good  condition  when  the  lambs  are 
weaned,  and  must  then  be  heavily  fed  on  foods  suitable 
for  milk  production  until  the  lambs  are  sold.  The  fodder 
should  be  leguminous,  fine  in  growth  rather  than  coarse, 


4O6  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

and  well  cured.  The  grain  should  be  rich  in  protein. 
Equal  parts  of  bran,  oats  and  corn  or  barley  make  a  good 
grain  ration,  and  it  should  be  fed  nearly  to  the  limit  of  the 
capacity  of  the  dams  to  consume  it.  Field  roots  sliced  or 
corn  silage  are  excellent,  especially  the  former.  The 
roots  may  be  fed  with  much  freedom,  but  usually  not  more 
than  3  or  4  pounds  of  silage  are  fed  daily. 

The  lambs  are  started  on  such  food  as  sifted  ground 
oats  and  oil  cake  or  oil  meal.  This  food  and  that  which 
follows  it,  is  fed  inside  a  creep,  which  the  dams  may  not 
enter.  Ere  long  the  lambs  will  take  unground  oats,  cracked 
corn  and  oil  meal,  and  these  properly  blended  aid  in  pushing 
them  rapidly.  Corn  may  usually  be  profitably  fed  to  the 
extent  of  making  half  the  grain  ration,  as  quick  fattening 
is  wanted.  The  other  factors  may  be  fed  in  equal  propor- 
tions where  the  prices  will  admit  of  such  feeding. 

As  winter  lambs  are  usually  sent  to  a  market  that 
furnishes  meat  for  a  special  and  high  class  trade,  they 
are  frequently  ordered  as  wanted.  To  fill  such  orders  with 
dispatch,  it  is  essential  that  the  shipping  facilities  shall 
be  of  a  reasonably  high  order.  This  means  that  winter 
lambs  can  be  most  profitably  reared  in  proximity  to  rail- 
road stations. 

Growing  bacon. — To  grow  bacon  of  high  quality,  the 
following  requisites  are  essential:  (i)  The  animals  must 
be  possessed  of  correct  form;  (2)  they  must  be  managed 
on  correct  principles  and  (3)  they  must  be  grown  on  foods 
that  will  secure  the  end  sought.  The  question  of  form  is 
discussed  elsewhere.  (See  p.  153). 

Correct  management  calls  for  feeding  that  will  secure 
the  requisite  growth  within  a  reasonable  age,  for  steady  and 
continuous  rather  than  fitful  development,  for  that  amount 
of  exercise  that  will  insure  the  requisite  amount  of  muscle 
in  the  carcass,  and  for  that  degree  of  finish  that  gives  the 
desired  firmness  and  thickness  to  the  carcass  without  ex- 
cess in  either  of  these. 


MEAT    PRODUCTION  407 

The  most  desirable  weights  in  high  class  bacon  run 
from,  say  160  to  220  pounds.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  lighter  weights  are  preferred.  These  weights  should 
be  attained  in  from  six  to  seven  months.  To  reach  them 
more  quickly  would  involve  feeding  that  would  produce 
meat  with  an  excess  of  fat  and  softness.  To  produce 
them  more  slowly  would  cut  in  seriously  on  the  profits. 

Unless  the  growth  is  steady  and  continuous,  the  desired 
weights  will  not  be  attained.  It  should  average  about  30 
pounds  a  month  during  each  month.  Of  course  it  will  not 
average  that  much  the  first  three  months,  but  will  average 
more  during  the  months  that  follow.  Food  that  will 
produce  very  quick  development,  especially  during  the 
later  stages  of  growth,  will  produce  meat  more  or  less 
lacking  in  firmness. 

Exercise  is  essential  to  the  development  of  muscle. 
Too  little  exercise  accompanied  even  by  ordinary  feeding 
would  result  in  the  production  of  too  small  a  percentage 
of  lean  meat.  The  bacon  carcass  should  possess  not  only 
a  large  proportion  of  lean  in  the  sides  but  also  in  the 
hams  and  elsewhere.  Too  much  exercise  will  retard  growth 
unduly.  Because  of  the  exercise  which  it  furnishes,  the 
pasturing  of  bacon  swine  during  the  season  of  growth  has 
an  important  bearing  upon  the  development  of  muscle. 

With  bacon  swine,  the  fattening  or  finishing  period 
is  less  pronounced  than  with  the  other  types  of  swine.  It 
is  more  a  firming  and  thickening  of  the  carcass  than  a 
fattening  of  the  same,  and  yet  it  is  not  to  be  understood 
that  a  bacon  carcass  is  synonymous  with  a  lean  and  thin 
carcass.  The  finishing  of  bacon  is  accomplished  through 
feeding  foods  which  contain  a  reasonably  high  percentage 
of  protein  and  carbohydrates,  but  not  an  excess  of  either. 

During  pregnancy  and  the  nursing  period  that  follows, 
the  food  fed  to  the  bacon  and  lard  types  of  swine  is  es- 
sentially the  same,  that  is  to  say,  in  both  instances  it  should 
be  essentially  nitrogenous  in  character  (see  p.  124).  But 
during  the  growing  period  subsequently  to  weaning,  the 


408  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

bacon  types  call  for  food  more  nitrogenous  than  the  lard 
types,  and  during  the  finishing  period  the  food  fed  to  the 
former  should  be  considerably  less  carbonaceous.  Legumin- 
ous pastures  are  in  order.  Corn  may  form  say  33  per  cent 
of  the  grain  fed  while  the  swine  feed  upon  such  pastures. 
During  the  finishing  period  it  should  not  furnish  more 
than  that  proportion  of  the  same.  Skim  milk  and  barley 
furnish  an  excellent  ration  for  growing  bacon,  and  no  grain 
furnishes  bacon  of  a  higher  quality  than  barley  if  fed  as 
the  sole  or  principal  food  during  the  finishing  period.  In 
the  absence  of  skim  milk,  shorts  is  one  of  the  best  sub- 
stitutes, while  skim  milk,  shorts  and  barley  are  particularly 
excellent  when  fed  in  reasonable  combination.  These  are 
the  standard  foods  fed  in  Denmark,  so  justly  noted  for  the 
high  quality  of  its  bacon.  Other  grain,  as  peas,  oats  and 
rye,  when  available,  may  be  fed  along  with  barley  and  with 
much  success. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

CONSIDERATIONS  THAT  RELATE  TO  MILK 
PRODUCTION. 

Prominent   among   the   considerations   that    relate   to 
milk  production  are  the  following: — 

1.  Formation  of  milk. 

2.  Composition  of  milk. 

3.  Foods  and  milk  production. 

4.  Milk  production  and  cost. 

5.  Quantity  in  milk  production. 

6.  Quality  in  milk  production. 

7.  Breeds  and  milk  production. 

8.  Lactation  and  milk  production. 

9.  Age  and  milk  production 

10.  Large  and  small  cows. 

11.  Relative  milk  giving  capacity. 

12.  Protection  for  cows  in  summer 

13.  Shelter  for  cows  in  winter. 

14.  Feeding  grain  to  cows  on  pasture. 
These  are  discussed  in  the  order  given. 
Formation   of   milk. — As    has   been   pointed   out   by 

Armsby,  milk  is  not  simply  a  secretion  from  the  blood, 
as  urine  is  in  the  kidneys,  or  as  the  digestive  juices  are  in 
the  stomach  and  intestines.  That  it  is  not  a  transudate,  that 
is  a  variant,  a  filtrate  of  the  blood,  the  result  of  the  pas- 
sage of  its  fluid  constituents  through  membrane,  is  shown 
in  its  composition.  Milk  differs  from  blood:  (i)  In  that 
it  contains  factors  not  found  in  blood;  (2)  in  the  marked 
contrast  in  the  ash  in  blood  and  milk  respectively  and  (3) 
in  the  sustaining  power  of  each.  Cow's  milk  contains 
from  2  to  5  per  cent  protein,  and  from  3  to  5  per  cent 
milk  sugar.  But  the  protein  of  the  blood  exists  as  al- 
bumin or  fibrin,  while  the  greater  portion  of  that  in  milk 
exists  as  casein,  which  is  found  in  considerable  quantity 


4IO  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

only  in  milk.  Milk  sugar  has  not  been  met  with  else- 
where in  the  animal  organism.  The  ash  of  milk  contains 
from  three  to  five  times  as  much  potash  as  soda,  while  the 
ash  of  blood  contains  from  three  to  five  times  as  much 
soda  as  potash.  Milk,  therefore,  cannot  be  a  secretion,  in 
the  ordinary  use  of  the  term.  Moreover,  milk  contains 
within  itself  all  the  essential  constituents  for  sustaining 
animal  life  and  in  due  balance  which  is  not  true  of  blood. 

Milk  is  secreted  in  the  mammary  glands.  It  is  formed 
in  the  milk  glands  and  from  the  cells  of  the  same.  That 
its  formation  shall  be  possible,  it  is  essential  that  the  ani- 
mal which  has  not  heretofore  produced  it  shall  become 
pregnant.  When  conception  takes  place,  the  cells  begin 
to  enlarge  and  to  fill  with  fat  globules.  New  cells  also 
are  formed,  a  process  which  increases  until  the  birth  period, 
at  which  time  it  becomes  very  rapid.  The  secretions  first 
formed  are  those  also  first  drawn  from  the  udder,  and 
form  the  colostrum  of  milk  (see  p.  411).  In  three  or  four 
days,  this  is  followed  by  the  true  milk.  After  a  period  in 
lactation,  the  glands  decrease  in  size,  and  the  milk  flow  is 
reduced,  hence  the  necessity  for  recurring  periods  of 
pregnancy  to  secure  corresponding  periods  of  abundant 
milk  production. 

Milk  elaboration  does  not  proceed  at  a  uniform  rate 
between  milkings.  It  is  most  rapid  by  far  while  the  milk 
is  being  withdrawn.  It  is  greatly  accelerated  by  the  manip- 
ulation of  the  udder  in  the  act  of  milking,  and  is  also  much 
influenced  by  the  nervous  condition  of  the  cow.  The  char- 
acter of  the  manipulation  exerts  an  important  influence 
as  well  as  the  fact  of  the  same,  as  is  shown  from  the  in- 
crease or  decrease  which  frequently  results  from  a  change 
of  milkers.  The  results  from  nervous  influence  are  shown 
in  the  marked  difference  in  quantity  and  to  some  extent  in 
the  quality  of  milk  withdrawn  by  those  whose  work  is 
gentle  and  kind,  as  compared  with  the  same  withdrawn 
by  milkers  harsh  and  rough. 

That  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk  are  not 
dependent  entirely  on  the  food,  is  evidenced  in  the  great 


MILK      PRODUCTION  411 

difference  in  the  amount  and  character  of  the  milk  from 
two  cows  fed  on  precisely  the  same  kind  of  food,  the  other 
conditions  being  similar.  These  are  determined  by  the 
size  and  quality  of  the  milk  gland.  But  the  relation  be- 
tween food  and  milk  is  very  close,  nevertheless.  The  milk 
cells  consist  largely  of  protein.  The  fat  also  and  probably 
a  part  of  the  milk  sugar  is  formed  from  albuminoids,  hence 
it  is  to  be  expected  that  their  formation  will  be  more  or 
less  dependent  on  the  protein  in  the  food.  This  logical 
expectation  has  been  abundantly  verified  by  experiments, 
which  have  shown  that  the  most  abundant  milk,  yields  have 
been  obtained  from  a  fodder  rich  in  protein.  Before  leav- 
ing the  subject,  it  may  be  said  that,  notwithstanding  all 
that  is  known  about  milk  elaboration,  many  things  about 
it  are  not  yet  understood. 

The  composition  of  milk. — Milk  is  the  opaque  whitish 
liquid  secreted  by  the  mammary  glands  of  female  animals, 
and  primarily  designed  for  the  nourishment  of  their  young, 
but  in  every  age,  it  has  also  been  made  to  furnish  food 
for  the  human  family.  In  America  about  the  only  milk 
used  for  man  is  that  taken  from  the  cow,  but  the  milk  of 
sheep  and  goats  and  even  of  mares  is  also  used  thus  in 
various  countries.  Cow's  milk  is  easily  digested,  and  con- 
tains in  equilibrium  all  the  constituents  requisite  for  main- 
taining life  and  promoting  growth  in  bovines  and  also  in 
the  human  family,  at  least  during  the  earlier  periods  of 
development.  Notwithstanding  considerable  and  even  wide 
variations  in  the  composition  of  milk  from  individual  ani- 
mals, the  following  may  be  given  as  approximately  the  aver- 
age constituents  of  the  milk  of  cows,  sheep  and  mares 
respectively : — 

Digestive  nutrients  in  100  Ibs. 

ind  of  Dry  matter  in  Carbo-  Ether 

milk  100  pounds          Protein  hydrates  Extract 

Ibs.  Ibs.          Ibs.  Ibs. 

From  cows  12.80  3.60         4.90  3.70 

From   ewes  19.18  6.52        4.91  6.86 

From    mares  9.22  1.99         5.67  1.21 


412  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Because  of  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  samples,  but  few 
analyses  of  sow's  milk  have  ever  been  made.  At  the  Wis- 
consin station  the  ^average  of  nine  samples  gave  the  fol- 
lowing in  100  pounds  of  milk:  Dry  matter  19.65  pounds, 
protein  6.4  pounds,  carbohydrates  4.75  pounds  and  ether 
extract  8.24  pounds. 

The  protein  is  found  in  the  above  tables  as  casein  and 
albumen,  the  proportions  being  as  about  5  to  i.  When  the 
casein  is  coagulated,  as  by  the  use  of  rennet,  it  forms  curd 
which  is  made  into  cheese.  The  greater  portion  of  the  fat 
also  enters  into  the  curd.  The  albumen  does  not  coag- 
ulate, and  in  making  cheese,  along  with  the  milk  sugar, 
passes  into  the  whey. 

The  carbohydrates  are  formed  as  milk  sugar,  which  in 
chemical  composition  closely  resembles  cane  sugar,  but  is 
not  equal  to  the  latter  in  sweetening  power,  and  it  is  less 
soluble.  It  is  thought  to  have  about  the  same  feeding 
value  as  an  equal  weight  of  starch.  When  milk  sours 
coagulation  is  caused  by  some  of  the  milk  sugar  being 
changed  to  lactic  acid. 

The  ether  extract,  which  is  simply  fat,  exists  in  the 
form  of  minute  globules,  which  are  essentially  a  mixture 
of  several  fats.  These  are  exceedingly  minute,  so  much  so 
that  their  number  is  almost  incredible.  When  the  milk  is 
left  at  rest,  these  rise  to  the  surface  and  form  cream.  They 
are  also  separated  by  what  is  known  as  the  centrifugal 
system,  which  subjects  the  milk  to  a  rapid  whirling  motion, 
at  least  soon  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow.  By 
churning  the  cream  thus  gathered,  butter  is  obtained. 

Whole  milk  is  also  rich  in  mineral  matter.  Were  it 
otherwise,  it  would  not  furnish  sufficient  material  for  the 
further  development  of  the  bony  structure  in  young  ani- 
mals. Cow's  milk  contains  about  seven-tenths  of  a  pound 
of  mineral  substance  in  each  100  pounds  of  milk,  spoken 
of  as  ash.  It  consists  chiefly  of  phosphates  and  chloride  of 
potash,  soda  and  lime. 


MILK      PRODUCTION  413 

As  a  food  for  young  stock,  whole  milk  is  without  a 
rival.  Substitutes  are  of  course  frequently  used  as  supple- 
ments or  substitutes  for  it,  but  none  of  these  have  been 
found  to  answer  quite  so  well  the  purposes  of  rapid  growth. 
This  explains  why  it  is  so  generally  given  without  stint 
to  young  animals  that  are  to  be  fitted  for  exhibition 
purposes,  far  beyond  the  usual  age  for  weaning.  Although 
by  far  the  safest  food  for  young  stock,  some  caution  must 
be  exercised  in  feeding  it,  especially  when  very  rich  in 
fat,  or  digestive  troubles  may  follow. 

From  the  table  it  will  be  noticed  that  ewe's  milk  has 
in  it  a  much  higher  proportion  of  protein  and  fat  than 
cow's  milk.  This  would  suggest  the  wisdom  of  adding 
cream  to  cow's  milk  used  in  starting  lambs  quite  young 
on  the  same,  or  of  using  strippings  for  such  feeding.  As 
mare's  milk  contains  only  about  one-half  the  protein  and 
fat  of  cow's  milk,  but  considerably  more  sugar,  when 
cow's  milk  is  given  to  young  foals,  it  should  be  diluted 
with  water  and  sugar  added.  These  additions  may  of 
course  be  reduced  gradually  as  the  digestion  becomes  ac- 
customed to  the  change.  Sow's  milk  is  much  richer  in 
fat  and  sugar  than  cow's  milk,  hence  it  would  seem  prudent 
to  add  cream  and.  sugar  for  a  time,  when  cow's  milk  is 
substituted  for  the  former  with  quite  young  pigs. 

Foods  and  milk  production. — To  furnish  milk  eco- 
nomically the  cow  should  be  supplied  with  food :  ( i )  In 
balance  as  to  chemical  constituents  and  of  easy  digestibility ; 
(2)  in  quantity  limited  only  by  the  consuming  power  of 
the  cow;  (3)  obtained  from  sources  relatively  cheap  and 
(4)  possessed  of  at  least  a  reasonable  amount  of  succulence. 
The  yield  in  milk  production,  other  things  being  equal,  will 
be  reduced  in  proportion  as  these  essentials  are  lacking. 
The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  recommend  the  following 
organic  and  digestible  nutrients  for  milk  production  per 
day,  in  a  cow  possessed  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight  and 
producing  22  pounds  milk  daily: 


414  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Digestible  protein  2.5  pounds. 

Digestible  ether  extract  0.5  pound. 

Digestible  carbohydrates  13.0  pounds. 

Total  dry  matter  29.0  pounds. 

This  gives  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:5.7.  In -nearly  all 
foods  the  inorganic  or  mineral  constituents  are  sufficiently 
present  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  the  animals.  The  one 
common  exception  is  salt. 

The  above  constituents  are  much  the  same  as  those 
contained  in  good  pasture  grass,  and  this  fact  constitutes 
a  strong  presumptive  argument  in  favor  of  its  approximate 
correctness.  Good  pasture  grass,  when  at  its  best  for 
milk  production,  constitutes  more  nearly  a  perfect  ration 
for  cows  giving  milk  than  any  single  food  that  can  be 
furnished  for  them.  This  is  evidenced  in  the  doubt  that 
exists  in  the  minds  of  many  practical  men  as  to  whether 
anything  can  be  added  to  such  a  ration,  as  grain  for  in- 
stance, that  will  make  it  more  effective  in  producing  milk. 
Good  pasture  for  milk  production  may  be  defined  as 
pasture  so  far  advanced  in  growth  that  it  will  not  induce 
under-laxity  of  the  digestion,  not  far  enough  advanced  in 
growth  to  make  it  in  any  marked  degree  less  palatable 
or  less  digestible,  and  sufficiently  abundant  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  animals  without  calling  for  any  unnecessary 
exertion  from  it  while  grazing. 

The  tendency  with  some  American  investigators,  how- 
ever, is  to  reduce  somewhat  the  protein  requirement  in  the 
food  for  dairy  cows  as  given  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
standards.  Some  of  these  favor  a  reduction  of  as  much  as 
10  per  cent  of  protein.  This  would  make  the  digestible 
protein  requirement  2.25  instead  of  2.5  pounds  per  day,  and 
would  in  no  inconsiderable  degree  cheapen  the  ration.  The 
wisdom  of  making  such  a  reduction  has  found  considerable 
support.  The  difference  in  the  protein  reqirement  thus 
advanced  for  the  respective  countries  may  be  owing  to  a 
difference  in  the  condition  of  the  foods  as  to  the  amount  of 


MILK      PRODUCTION  415 

moisture  which  they  contain,  or  to  some  other  difference. 
Nor  should  it  be  overlooked  that  heifers  immature  require 
more  protein  relatively  than  mature  cows  to  aid  in  complet- 
ing growth,  and  large  milk  producers  more  than  those 
which  produce  less  freely,  since  with  the  former  more  is 
required  for  the  larger  yield  of  milk  furnished. 

Much  depends  on  the  relative  digestibility  of  the  food. 
Concentrated  foods  as  grain  and  the  by-products  of  grain 
are  not  only  richer  in  the  per  cent  of  nutrients  which  they 
contain,  but  the  per  cent  of  these  digestible  is  also  larger. 
This  explains  in  part,  why  it  is  advantageous  and  even 
necessary  to  feed  more  or  less  grain  or  meal  along  with  dry 
fodders.  The  cow  is  unable  to  consume  enough  bulky 
fodder  to  produce  maximum  milk  yields,  and  with  increase 
in  the  relative  proportion  thereof  fed  to  cows,  comes  in- 
crease in  the  energy  expended  in  digesting  the  ration.  For 
instance,  a  ration  that  produces  a  given  return  on  the  basis 
of  nutrients  when  60  per  cent  of  the  nutrients  are  digestible, 
will  not  produce  the  same  return  if  but  55  per  cent  are 
digestible.  Nor  should  the  same  return  be  expected  if  the 
nutrients  in  the  less  digestible  ration  were  increased  so  as 
to  make  the  total  digestible  nutrients  in  the  two  equal.  In 
the  latter  instance,  there  would  be  a  diversion  of  energy 
in  digestion  from  milk  production  to  the  mastication  of  the 
extra  digestible  matter  in  it,  and  in  carrying  the  same 
through  the  various  digestive  organs.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  a  matter  of  economy  and  to  maintain  sufficient 
distension  in  the  digestive  organs,  a  certain  proportion  of 
roughage  is  necessary. 

The  necessity  for  feeding  cows  freely  in  milk  produc- 
tion will  be  apparent  when  it  is  remembered  that  more 
than  half  the  food  fed  in  many  instances  is  required  as 
the  food  of  maintenance  before  any  return  can  be  obtained 
for  the  same.  Production  can  only  begin  from  the  food  fed 
after  this  requirement  has  been  satisfied,  and  is  only  limited 
by  the  amount  consumed  and  the  capacity  of  the  cow  to 
produce  milk  from  it.  The  only  limit  to  be  observed  in 


416  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

feeding  cows  applies  to  the  relative  proportion  of  con- 
centrates fed.  This  should  not  be  so  high  as  to  react  in 
reducing  digestive  capacity,  which  will  certainly  follow  pro- 
longed and  excessive  feeding  of  concentrates  (see  p.  115). 

That  the  aim  should  be  to  feed  foods  relatively  cheap 
when  efficient,  does  not  require  -to  be  argued.  But  how  to 
secure  and  feed  them  thus  stirs  a  large  and  ever  recurring 
question  in  the  experience  of  dairymen.  Grass  and  soil- 
ing foods,  as  well  as  dry  fodders,  are  usually  cheaper 
than  concentrates,  and  therefore  should  be  fed  to  the  great- 
est extent  compatible  with  the  highest  profit  attainable.  To 
secure  this  it  may  be  necessary  first,  to  sacrifice  something 
in  highest  yields,  attainable  through  feeding  more  grain, 
and  second,  to  feed  more  carbohydrates  relatively  than  the 
feeding  standards  call  for,  because  of  their  greater  relative 
cheapness. 

That  succulence  in  foods  exercises  an  important  in- 
fluence on  milk  production  has  already  been  noticed.  Why 
it  does  so  is  not  so  well  understood.  This  relation  is  con- 
stant in  the  sense  that  it  is  always  present,  though  varying- 
in  degree  with  the  foods  that  contain  the  succulence.  The 
influence  thus  exerted  is  greater  with  some  foods  than  with 
others  of  .  equal  succulence.  The  result  follows  probably 
from  the  favorable  influence  which  they  exert  on  the 
digestive  tone,  as  when  they  lessen  the  tendency  to  consti- 
pation, and  also  because  of  the  more  favorable  condition  in 
which  they  are  for  being  suitably  acted  upon  by  the  gastric 
juices,  because  of  their  soft  condition.  Green  corn  is  cer- 
tainly more  favorable  to  milk  production  than  the  same 
amount  of  dry  matter  in  corn  fed  in  the  cured  form,  not- 
withstanding that  the  amount  of  water  taken  into  the  sys- 
tem should  be  the  same  in  the  two  instances. 

Milk  production  and  cost. — The  cost  of  producing 
milk  will  depend  on  such  conditions  as  the  following :  ( i ) 
The  value  of  the  food  fed;  (2)  the  capacity  of  the  cow  to 
turn  food  into  milk;  (3)  the  season  of  the  year  at  which 
the  milk  is  obtained ;  (4)  the  cost  of  the  plant  and  the  value 
of  labor  involved. 


MILK      PRODUCTION  417 

So  far  as  food  is  purchased,  it  is  of  course  to  be 
charged  not  at  the  value  in  the  open  market  but  at  the 
price  paid,  with  the  cost  of  conveyance  added.  When  grown 
upon  the  farm,  it  is  to  be  reckoned  not  at  the  market  but 
at  the  home  value,  which  may  be  set  down  as  approximately 
20  per  cent  less  than  the  market  value  under  average  con- 
ditions. This  important  factor  should  be  taken  into  the 
account  when  studying  the  reports  of  experiment  stations 
on  animal  production,  as  these  usually  charge  food  at 
market  values. 

Variations  in  the  value  of  foods,  the  result  of  location 
and  other  conditions  may  make  a  difference  of  not  less 
-than  50  per  cent  in  the  cost  of  production.  Fertility  or  the 
lack  of  this  has  an  important  influence  on  the  cost  of  home 
grown  foods.  The  proportion  of  roughage  to  concentrates 
fed,  especially  when  succulent  and  nutritious,  as  silage, 
tends  to  cheapen  production.  In  an  experiment  at  the 
Utah  station,  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  dairy  cow  for  a 
year  was  $22.28;  while  at  the  Cornell  university  it  was 

$45.25. 

The  influence  of  adaptation  in  the  cow  for  production 
is,  in  some  instances,  greater  even  than  that  of  food  values 
on  the  cost  of  production.  In  the  test  referred  to  above  at 
the  Cornell  university,  the  particulars  of  which  are  given 
in  Bulletin  No.  32,  issued  by  that  institution,  there  were 
20  cows.  The  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  milk  varied 
all  the  way  from  44  cents  to  $1.07  per  cow.  The  cost  of 
food  with  the  former  was  $43.12  for  the  year  and  with 
the  latter  $36.24.  In  the  case  of  a  very  young  heifer,  the 
cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  milk  was  $1.46,  but  be- 
cause of  her  tender  age  she  is  excluded  from  the  compari- 
son. The  cost  of  producing  butter  fat  varied  from  1 1  cents 
to  27  cents  per  pound.  Excluding  the  heifer  referred  to, 
the  yields  of  milk  for  the  year  varied  from  3,387.75  to 
11,165  pounds.  To  produce  the  former  cost  in  food  $36.24, 
and  to  produce  the  latter  $52.06.  Valuing  the  milk  at  70 
cents  per  100  pounds,  the  difference  in  the  net  production 


4l8  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

would  be  $51.04  and  in  the  cost  of  the  food  but  $15.82.  The 
wisdom  of  careful  selection  and  close  culling  in  the  dairy 
are  thus  emphasized. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  production  costs  more 
in  winter  than  in  summer,  in  keeping  with  the  relative 
change  in  food  values.  The  maximum  of  cost  is  usually 
reached  in  March  and  April,  and  the  minimum  in  the  early 
months  of  pasture.  As  winter  approaches,  the  cost  again 
increases.  This  does  not  mean  that  summer  dairying  is 
more  profitable.  It  is  usually  less  so,  owing  to  the  relatively 
cheaper  value  of  dairy  products.  On  the  average  farm  it 
would  be  correct  to  say,  that  winter  dairying,  all  things 
considered,  is  the  more  profitable  and  generally  ad- 
vantageous. 

As  the  cost  of  the  plant,  that  is,  the  cost  of  rent  of 
land  and  buildings,  cows  and  dairy  utensils  increases,  so 
does  the  interest  on  the  investment.  The  difference  in  this 
respect  on  cheap  land  and  fertile,  and  dear  land  and  not 
much  fertile,  is  very  considerable.  The  difference  in  wages 
may  also  vary  materially  in  localities.  The  cost  of  trans- 
portation must  be  considered,  and  the  difference  here  also 
may  be  material  in  the  case  of  milk. 

In  the  face  of  influences  which  thus  vary,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  mean  averages  of  the  cost  of  producing*  100  pounds 
of  milk,  or  one  pound  of  butter  fat.  With  a  whole  herd 
it  has  seldom  been  found  possible  during  recent  years  to 
produce  the  former  at  a  less  cost  than  50  cents  and  the 
latter  at  a  less  cost  than  12  cents. 

Quantity  in  milk  production. — The  influences  that 
affect  quantity  in  milk  production  include  the  following: 
(i)  The  food  fed;  (2)  the  breed  or  grade;  (3)  type;  (4) 
inheritance;  (5)  size;  (6)  age;  (7)  time  from  calving;  (8) 
exercise;  (9)  discomfort  arising  from  any  source,  and  (10) 
habit  in  milk  giving.  It  is  not  possible  to  state  the  relative 
degrees  of  the  influence  thus  exercised,  since  it  will  vary 
with  variation  in  the  attendant  conditions. 


°F  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

PRODUCTION 


That  the  food  fed  exercises  a  most  potent  influence 
on  the  quantity  of  milk  produced  is  evident  from  the  fact, 
that  though  all  the  other  influences  should  be  present  in 
the  most  desirable  form,  the  quantity  of  milk  produced  can 
only  be  proportionate  to  the  suitability  of  the  food  ration. 
The  essentials  in  foods  favorable  to  milk  production 
are  :  A  high  relative  protein  content,  enough  of  succulence, 
sufficient  concentration,  and  at  least  a  reasonable  degree 
of  palatability. 

The  influence  of  the  breed  or  grade  on  milk  produc- 
tion, more  especially  with  reference  to  quantity  in  produc- 
tion, is  recognized  in  the  classification  of  cows,  as  dairy, 
dual  purpose  and  beef  breeds.  This  classification  carries 
along  with  it  the  thought  that  the  class  first  named  pos- 
sesses dairy  qualities  in  the  highest  degree,  including,  of 
course,  quantity  in  milk  production.  Experience  in  grading 
has  also  shown  that  the  influence  of  breed  on  production 
in  the  grade  is  so  marked,  that  a  limited  number  of  genera- 
tions of  up-grading  will  so  effectively  enstamp  milking 
qualities,  that  these  will  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
same  in  the  breed  from  which  the  sires  have  been  chosen. 
When  accompanied  by  careful  selection,  this  result  should 
follow  within,  say  four  to  six  generations  of  careful  breed- 
ing. For  the  standing  of  the  dairy  and  dual  purpose  breeds 
with  reference  to  production  see  page  135. 

That  type  or  form  exercises  a  most  potent  influence  on 
quantity  in  milk  production  cannot  be  questioned.  (See 
p.  143.)  It  is  possible  nevertheless  that  some  writers  on  dairy 
form  have  assigned  a  higher  relative  value  to  it,  as  gen- 
erally outlined,  than  it  is  entitled  to,  and  that  some  breeders 
have  sought  it  to  an  extent  that  has  led  to  a  lessened  pro- 
duction. The  most  that  can  be  claimed  for  it  is,  that  it  is 
an  indicator  of  quantity  in  milk  production,  so  reliable, 
as  to  furnish  a  reasonably  safe  general  guide  when  select- 
ing or  judging  dairy  cattle.  That  it  is  not  an  infallible 
guide  is  shown  first,  in  the  inability  of  the  best  judges  to 
certainly  determine  the  rank  of  the  various  animals  in  a 


42O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

dairy  nerd  in  the  order  of  tne  relative  milk  yields  obtained 
from  each.  This  inability  is  based  on  the  fact  that  highest 
type,  as  based  on  generally  recognized  interpretation,  is  not 
always  associated  with  highest  milk  yields.  Second,  with 
some  breeds,  notably  the  Brown  Swiss,  large  milking 
capacity  is  associated  with  some  indications  of  form,  nota- 
bly strong  shoulders  and  heavy  hams,  that  are  usually 
looked  upon  as  being  antagonistic  to  large  milk  production. 

Furthermore,  some  essentials  of  the  recognized  dairy 
type  in  what  may  be  termed  the  extremest  form,  are  to 
some  extent  antagonistic  to  the  retention  of  the  highest  de- 
gree of  inherent  stamina.  These  include  thin,  and  long 
necks,  sharpness  and  steepness  at  the  withers  and  down- 
ward spring  of  rib,  beyond  a  certain  degree.  Extreme  in 
degree,  these  point  to  and  are  associated  with  a  vitality 
not  of  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous  type.  Some  regard 
must  be  had  then  to  the  law  of  equilibrium  in  dairy  form, 
even  though  it  should  be  necessary  to  sacrifice  something 
in  milk  yields  in  order  to  maintain  it. 

The  influence  of  inheritance  on  quantity  in  milk 
production  is  very  potent.  As  with  all  other  forms  of 
transmission,  such  inheritance  is  not  invariably  uniform 
and  certain,  but  it  is  sufficiently  so  to  enable  the  skillful 
breeder  to  maintain  high  averages  in  milk  yields,  and 
even  to  increase  them.  In  up-grading,  the  increase  from 
such  transmission  is  most  marked. 

That  there  is  a  relation  between  large  size  up  to  a 
certain  limit  and  quantity  in  milk  production  cannot  be 
questioned.  What  may  be  regarded  as  phenomenal  milk 
yields  have  nearly  all  been  made  by  cows  of  large  size. 
Such  a  result  is  in  harmony  with  the  known  laws  of  physi- 
ology, as,  with  increase  in  size,  other  things  being  equal, 
there  is  increase  in  capacity  to  take  the  food  from  which 
milk  is  made.  The  proportion  of  the  food  nutrients  di- 
verted for  maintenance  is  also  relatively  less.  The  relation 
between  size,  milk  production  and  cost  is  discussed  else- 
where. (See  p.  433.) 


MILK      PRODUCTION  421 

That  age  influences  production  is  potent  to  everyone 
conversant  with  dairying.  During  the  first  years  of  lacta- 
tion, general  experience  has  shown  that  the  milk  yields, 
though  advancing  from  year  to  year  toward  maximum, 
are  lower  than  maximum,  and  that  when  the  meridian 
of  vigor  is  passed,  they  gradually  decline.  The  time  re- 
quired to  reach  maximum  yields  and  to  maintain  them, 
varies  with  such  influences  as  individual  vigor,  based  upon 
individual  or  breed  inheritance,  care  and  management. 

In  nearly  all  instances  maternity  is  a  pre-requisite  to 
milk  production  in  any  degree,  and  in  all  instances,  it  is 
a  pre-requisite  to  the  same  under  normal  conditions.  Uni- 
formity in  the  quantity  of  the  milk  flow  cannot  be  main- 
tained for  any  considerable  period. 

The  largest  milk  yields  are  obtained  during  the  weeks 
which  follow  the  first  week  or  two  subsequently  to  parturi- 
tion. They  then  gradually  decrease,  howsoever  suitable 
for  milk  production  the  food  may  be,  until  finally  they 
cease  entirely.  The  duration  of  the  period  of  lactation  is 
influenced  by  several  conditions  and  may  be  greatly  pro- 
longed but  it  cannot  be  maintained  indefinitely  in  the 
absence  of  the  renewing  influence  of  maternity.  (  See  p.  429. ) 

Exercise,  in  so  far  as  it  tends  to  maintain  normal  vigor, 
is  favorable  to  increase  in  the  amount  of  milk  given. 
When,  however,  it  draws  upon  the  energies  beyond  the 
necessity  mentioned,  it  tends  proportionately  to  reduce 
milk  yields.  Cows  in  milk  do  not  call  for  much  exercise 
when  kept  under  proper  sanitary  conditions.  Every  step 
taken  in  pastures  when  grazing  beyond  actual  health  re- 
quirements, tells  so  far  adversely  on  milk  production. 
When  given  it  should  always  be  gentle  in  character. 

Discomfort  to  cows  during  the  period  of  lactation 
may  arise  from  many  sources.  Prominent  among  these 
are:  (i)  Exposure  to  the  extent  of  producing  unrest 
whether  from  cold  or  heat;  (2)  irritating  influences  such 
as  lice,  mange  and  flies;  (3)  irregularity  in  feeding,  water- 
ing or  milking  and  (4)  disturbance  of  equilibrium  in  the  ner- 


422  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

vous  system.  Anyone  of  these  influences  acting  singly  when 
present  in  any  considerable  degree  may  result  in  a  marked 
reduction  in  the  milk  yield.  For  the  discussion  of  the 
influence  of  cold  and  heat  see  pages  439  and  436. 

In  a  well  ordered  dairy,  lice  and  mange  may  give  but 
little  or  no  trouble.  In  fact  where  cows  are  not  bought  in  to 
any  extent,  they  may  never  be  present.  Not  so,  however, 
with  flies  (see  p.  437).  From  the  two  sources  of  irrita- 
tion first  mentioned,  they  may  with  the  exercise  of  due 
precaution  be  protected,  but  no  precaution  of  an  entirely 
practical  nature  can  altogether  protect  them  from  flies. 
The  remedies  for  such  visitations  do  not  come  within  the 
plan  of  this  work,  but  the  absolute  necessity  for  removing 
lice  and  mange  when  present,  or  any  other  form  of 
skin  disease,  is  emphasized,  as  also  the  wisdom  of  protect- 
ing  from  flies  as  far  as  practicable. 

The  absolute  necessity  for  observing  the  strictest  regu- 
larity in  furnishing  food  and  drink  to  cows,  if  highest 
milk  yields  are  to  follow,  cannot  be  too  strongly  em- 
phasized. It  has  not  been  shown  that  the  hour  for  giving 
food  or  drink  exercises  any  special  influence,  providing 
the  time  is  the  same  from  day  to  day.  Of  course  such 
hours  should  be  chosen  for  giving  food  and  drink  as  will 
best  suit  the  purpose  of  the  individual,  providing  they  do 
not  interfere  with  the  natural  season  in  which  the  cow  is  ac- 
customed to  rest.  Two  feeds  a  clay,  ample  in  quantity, 
have  been  found  quite  as  satisfactory  as  three.  When  these 
are  given  twelve  hours  apart,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  equilibrium  in  digestion  will  be  more  perfect  and  more 
easily  maintained,  than  when  the  intervals  between  feed- 
ing are  of  unequal  length.  When  they  are  unequal,  the 
digestive  organs  are  more  severely  taxed  during  the  short- 
er interval,  and  in  proportion  as  it  is  shorter.  But  regu- 
larity in  feeding  is  more  important  than  duration  between 
the  periods  of  feeding  or  even  the  number  of  feeds  per 
day.  Irregularity  in  milking  interferes  with  function  in  the 
milk  gland.  ( See  p.  480. )  When  milk  is  being  elaborated 


MILK      PRODUCTION  423 

in  large  quantities,  the  retention  of  the  same  beyond  the 
usual  time  produces  discomfort.  No  more  certain  method 
of  reducing  the  milk  flow  can  be  adapted  than  that  which 
withdraws  the  milk  from  the  udder  at  irregular  intervals, 
and  the  reduction  is  further  increased  when  the  milk  is 
not  all  taken  from  the  udder,  a  neglect  of  which  careless 
milkers  are  frequently  guilty. 

Milk  elaboration  is  more  or  less  influenced  by  the 
nervous  system  preceding  and  accompanying  such  elabora- 
tion. Nervous  calm  is  favorable  to  the  process,  and 
nervous  unrest  unfavorable.  This  explains  in  part  at  least 
why  it  is  so  harmful  to  chase  cows  in  milk  with  dogs.  It 
also  explains  why  noisy  and  rough  herdsmen,  even  though 
not  necessarily  cruel,  cannot  bring  the  herd  up  to  highest 
possible  capacity  in  milk-giving.  It  also  makes  it  plain 
why  gentle  milkers  who  are  uniformly  so  when  milking, 
will  get  more  milk  from  cows  than  those  opposite  in  their 
ways. 

The  influence  of  habit  on  quantity  in  milk  production 
is  shown  in  various  ways.  Among  these  are  the  following : 
( i )  In  the  tendency  in  the  average  cow  that  suckles  her 
calf  to  produce  no  more  milk  than  the  calf  can  utilize 
when  the  feeding  is  not  forced;  (2)  in  the  relatively  short 
period  during  which  she  provides  food  for  her  calf  and  this 
period  usually  does  not  cover  more  than  six  to  seven 
months;  (3)  in  the  relatively  large  quantity  of  milk 
produced  by  the  average  dairy  cow  properly  cared  for; 

(4)  in  the  difficulty  frequently  found  in  drying  off  good 
dairy  cows  to  give  them  a  period  of  rest  before  calving; 

(5)  in  the  great  increase  in  milk  production  that  may  be 
obtained  even  from  a  cow  possessed  of  what  may  be  termed 
the   beef   form,   through   patient,   persistent   milking   from 
year  to  year.     The  relation  between  the  influence  of  habit 
on  quantity  in  milk  production  and  inheritance  is  close.  The 
same   may  be   said   of  the  various   influences   that   offset 
quantity  in  milk  production.     In  fact  they  are  in  a  sense 


I 
424  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

a  more  or  less  complicated  interrelated  whole,  which  re- 
act upon  each  other,  so  closely  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  tell  the  degree  of  the  influence  that  should  be  assigned 
to  each. 

Quality  in  milk  production. — Quality  in  milk  relates 
chiefly  to  its  composition  as  to  constituents,  also  to  taste, 
flavor  and  color.  The  more  potent  of  the  influences  which 
affect  quality  in  the  milk  of  the  cow  and  also  probably  in 
that  of  other  domestic  animals  are:  (i)  Food;  (2)  breed 
or  grade;  (3)  individuality  within  the  breed  or  grade;  (4) 
the  time  of  the  lactation  period  and  also  of  the  milk-- 
ing season  when,  it  is  taken  from  the  udder  and 
(5)  quantity  in  the  milk  flow.  The  milk  of  mares  is  in- 
fluenced to  some  extent  by  work. 

Food  affects  quantity  in  milk  to  a  far  greater  extent 
than  quality  (see  p.  419).  But  it  also  affects  quality  to 
some  extent  with  reference  to  constituents  of  the  milk 
as  to  the  proportion  of  the  solids  and  other  components 
which  it  contains,  and  in  a  greater  degree,  taste  and  flavor 
in  the  same.  Food  rich  in  protein  may  considerably  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  solids  but  the  increase  relates 
to  other  factors  rather  than  to  fat.  This  would  seem  to 
explain  how  the  quantity  of  butter  may  to  some  extent  be 
increased  by  correct  feeding  without  increasing  the  propor- 
tion of  the  butter  fat.  The  popular  view  that  watery  food 
increases  the  proportion  of  water  in  milk,  has  not  been  sus- 
tained by  experiments  conducted  to  throw  light  upon  this 
question. 

That  food  exercised  an  important  determining  in- 
fluence on  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  milk  was  matter 
of  universal  belief  until  recent  years.  So  deeply  rooted  is 
this  belief  in  the  minds  of  a  considerable  number  of 
practical  dairymen,  that  they  still  cherish  it  in  the  face  of 
evidence  based  on  experiment  to  the  contrary.  Many  ex- 
periments carefully  conducted  have  shown  that  while  food 
may  and  does  increase  or  decrease  materially  the  total 
yield  of  fat,  that  it  does  not  essentially  increase  or  decrease 


MILK     PRODUCTION  425 

the  percentage  of  the  fat.  It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  if  a 
cow  has  been  fed  so  long  on  innutritions  food  that  her 
condition  as  to  flesh  and  bodily  vigor  have  been  greatly 
reduced,  and  if  such  food  is  supplanted  by  a  ration,  rich 
in  character,  there  will  in  time  be  some  increase  up  to  a 
certain  limit  in  the  fat  in  the  milk.  Under  normal  con- 
ditions there  may  be  slight  variations  in  the  percentage 
of  butter  fat  following  a  change  of  food,  but  these  are 
more  or  less  temporary  in  character.  It  is  also  true  that 
food  may  in  the  course  of  generations  exercise  some  in- 
fluence on  the  normal  quality  of  milk  as  to  butter  fat,  as 
witnessed  in  the  essential  difference  in  this  respect  with 
reference  to  the  milk  of  cows  maintained  on  the  bulky  and 
watery  foods  of  moist  lands  of  the  Netherlands,  and  those 
maintained  on  foods  less  bulky  and  watery  as  grown  in  the 
Channel  islands.  But  selection  also  with  the  cows  in  the 
two  countries  has  had  its  influence.  How  much  is  to  be 
attributed  to  each  can  never  be  known.  Food  also  in- 
fluences the  mechanical  condition  of  the  butter  fat  and  to 
some  extent  its  chemical  condition,  as  shown  in  its  keep- 
ing qualities.  Some  foods,  as  cottonseed  for  instance,  ren- 
der butter  more  firm,  and  others  as  oil  cake  when  fed  in 
very  large  quantities,  render  it  less  so. 

The  influence  of  food  also  extends  to  taste,  flavor  and 
color.  -  Taste  and  flavor  are  so  closely  allied,  that  usually 
if  not  indeed  always,  what  influences  one  also  influences 
the  other.  Among  the  foods  that  influence  both  favorably 
are  fresh  succulent  grasses,  nutritious  in  character.  Among 
those  that  influence  both  unfavorably,  when  eaten  in  large 
quantities  are  rye  and  rape  among  pastures ;  turnips,  ruta- 
bagas and  the  tops  of  these,  and  to  less  extent  potatoes 
among  roots  and  tubers;  and  leeks  (Allium  trie oc cum)  and 
penny  cress  (Thalsapi  arvense)  among  weeds.  The  taint 
thus  imparted  to  the  milk  extends  also  to  the  butter.  Color 
in  milk  is  more  influenced  by  breed  than  by  feed  as  shown 
below,  but  it  is  true  also  that  foods  which  furnish  the 
most  palatable  milk  also  furnish  it  of  good  color. 


426  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

Breed  influences  the  constituents  of  milk  more  prob- 
ably than  anything  else,  with  the  exception  of  species.  The 
difference  in  the  components  of  the  milk  of  mares  and  of 
cows  is  greater  than  the  difference  in  the  same  between 
cows  of  one  and  the  same  breed.  Some  breeds  produce 
milk  with  a  higher  percentage  of  butter  fat  than  others. 
The  difference  is  marked,  averaging  in  many  instances  as 
much  as  I  per  cent.  Milk  richest  in  butter  fat  comes 
from  the  Channel  island  breeds.  Breed  also  affects  color  in 
milk  and  in  some  degree  taste,  since  increase  or  decrease  in 
percentage  of  fat  influences  taste.  Taste  may  vary  in  in- 
dividuals, but,  usually  the  more  fat  the  milk  contains,  the 
more  agreeable  is  the  taste  considered.  The  bright  straw 
colored  tint  in  milk  increases  with  the  percentage  of  fat 
and  vice  versa.  The  influence  on  color  extends  also  to 
butter  made  from  the  milk.  The  Guernsey  breed  is  pro- 
verbial for  producing  butter  that  is  rich  in  color,  that  is 
butter  of  a  bright  yellowish  hue.  The  influence  of  grade 
on  milk  in  the  cows  is  the  same  in  kind  as  that  of  breed 
but  less  in  degree.  This  means  for  instance  that  the  higher 
the  percentage  of  Jersey  blood  in  Jersey  grades  the  higher 
relatively  will  be  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk.  But 
not  until  quite  a  number  of  generations  of  Jersey  grades 
have  been  produced  will  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk 
test  as  high  on  the  average  as  the  milk  of  the  pure  Jersey, 
(seep.  41). 

The  difference  in  the  quality  of  milk,  more  especially 
with  reference  to  the  amount  of  butter  fat  which  it  contains 
is  sometimes  greater  within  the  breed  or  grade  than  it  is 
between  breeds.  In  extreme  instances  it  may  average  as 
much  as  2  per  cent.  The  immediate  cause  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  milk  gland.  One  cow  of  the  same  age  and 
breed,  fed  on  precisely  the  same  kind  of  food,  and  under 
exactly  the  same  conditions,  will  furnish  much  less  milk 
and  milk  also  less  rich  in  butter  fat  than  another  cow  and 
no  amount  of  forcing  can  make  the  former  produce  equal 
to  the  latter  since  the  milk  gland  has  not  the  same  capacity 


MILK     PRODUCTION  427 

for  producing  milk  equal  in  quantity  or  quality  to  the  milk 
gland  of  the  other.  But  the  primary  cause  must  trace 
back  to  the  variations  which  accompany  inheritance. 

As  the  time  of  calving  is  receded  from,  the  quantity  of 
the  milk  produced  decreases  more  or  less  gradually.  With 
such  decrease  comes  an  increase  in  the  proportion  of  casein 
and  to  some  extent  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  fat.  The 
fat  also  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  volatile  fatty  acids 
during  the  earlier  periods  of  lactation,  hence  the  butter 
made  from  it  is  more  highly  flavored. 

The  variations  found  in  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
same  animal  from  whatever  source  they  may  arise  are 
slight,  compared  with  those  found  in  milk  as  it  is  drawn 
from  the  udder.  That  first  drawn  is  lowest  in  butter  fat 
and  the  increase  in  the  per  cent  of  the  fat  is  continuously 
progressive,  the  richest  milk  being  taken  last.  The  differ- 
ence is  in  some  instances  considerably  more  than  100  per 
cent. 

Quantity  in  the  milk  flow  influences  the  proportion 
of  solids  in  the  milk.  It  may  be  affirmed  that  as  a  rule: 
(i)  Large  yields  of  milk  from  cows  are  more  watery  than 
small  ones;  (2)  that  milk  is  less  watery  as  the  lactation 
period  advances  and  (3)  that  the  longer  the  intervals 
between  the  milkings  the  more  watery  is  the  milk. 

Breeds  and  milk  production. — Breed  influences:  (i) 
Quantity  in  production;  (2)  quality  in  the  same  and  (3) 
adaptation  for  production  with  reference  to  environment. 
It  is  by  no  means  the  only  influence  bearing  upon  any 
one  of  the  phases  of  production  just  mentioned,  but  it  does 
bear  upon  each  of  them  sufficiently  to  entitle  it  to  careful 
consideration  when  deciding  upon  the  breed  or  high 
grade  of  the  same  that  shall  be  chosen  for  dairying. 

That  breed  influences  quantity  in  milk  production  is 
well  brought  out  in  the  considerably  higher  averages  ob- 
tained from  Holstein-Friesian  cows  as  compared  with  the 
Jersey.  The  same  is  true  of  high  grades  of  these  respec- 
tive breeds.  The  difference  in  this  respect  cannot  j^e. 


428  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

stated  in  percentages,  owing  to  the  great  variations  in  in- 
dividuality in  single  animals  and  in  whole  herds,  the  out- 
come of  breeding,  selection  and  other  influences.  It  has 
been  sufficiently  recognized,  however,  by  practical  men, 
to  influence  them  in  establishing  their  herds.  When  milk 
is  wanted  for  sale,  as  in  cities,  the  preference  has  been  in 
favor  of  the  Holstein  rather  than  the  Jersey.  The  same 
preference  has  been  shown  on  many  farms  where  large 
quantities  of  skim  milk  are  wanted  for  feeding  swine  and 
kindred  uses.  Of  the  four  distinct  dairy  breeds  in  America, 
the  Holstein,  the  Ayrshire,  the  Guernsey  and  the  Jersey, 
it  would  be  correct  to  say  that  the  Holsteins  rank  highest 
for  quantity  in  milk  production,  the  Ayrshires  second,  and 
if  there  is  a  difference  the  Guernseys  will  rank  third.  The 
dual  types,  including  the  milking  Shorthorn,  the  Red  Poll, 
the  Brown  Swiss  and  the  Devon,  all  rank  at  least  medium 
in  the  quantity  of  milk  produced,  higher  probably  than 
the  Guernsey  and  Jersey,  and  lower  than  the  Holstein. 

For  quality  in  milk  based  on  the  percentage  of  the 
butter  fat,  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  unquestionably  en- 
titled to  first  place.  If  there  is  a  difference  in  the  balancing, 
it  would  probably  incline  toward  the  Jersey.  Next  in  the 
percentage  of  butter  fat  comes  the  Ayrshire,  and  the 
Holstein  stands  lowest.  Where  cream  and  butter  are  the 
chief  considerations,  aside  from  the  influences  of  adaptation 
to  environment,  it  is  very  evident  which  of  the  breeds  will 
best  answer  the  purpose.  Without  additional  light  it  would 
not  be  possible  to  classify  the  milk  of  the  dual  types  in  the 
order  of  richness  in  butter  fat.  The  milk  of  each  of  these 
ranks  at  least  medium  in  this  respect.  Like  that  of  the 
Ayrshire  it  is  equally  well  adapted  to  the  production  of 
butter  and  cheese.  For  the  last  named  purpose,  the  milk 
of  the  Holstein  also  ranks  at  least  medium.  The  milk 
of  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  not  so  much  used  in  cheese 
making  as  that  of  the  other  breeds  named,  not  from  any 
want  of  adaptation  for  such  a  use,  but  from  the  smaller 
relative  yields  frequently  obtained. 


MILK     PRODUCTION  429 

The  adaptation  of  breed  to  the  environment  should 
never  be  ignored.  That  relatively  light  breeds  fare  better 
on  rugged  lands  and  pastures  extensive  in  production  is 
now  generally  conceded.  It  is  also  generally  accepted  that 
the  Ayrshire  and  the  Devon  have  higher  adaptation  for 
stern  climates  than  some  at  least  of  the  other  breeds. 

The  milk  of  high  grades  of  all  the  breeds  named  has 
essentially  the  same  peculiarities  as  that  of  the  breeds  in 
the  pure  form,  but  probably  they  do  not  possess  these  in 
the  same  degree.  It  would  seem  to  be  true  that  changing 
the  quality  of  the  milk  produced  is  not  so  easily  or  quickly 
accomplished  as  changing  the  animal  form. 

Lactation  and  milk  production. — With  reference  to 
milk  giving  it  may  be  said :  ( I )  That  the  period  of  the 
lactation  exercises  an  important  influence  on  production; 
(2)  the  milk  yield  is  greatest  a  short  time  subsequently  to 
the  time  of  calving;  (3)  after  a  time  it  lessens  gradually 
under  normal  conditions,  until  finally  it  ceases;  (4)  it  is,  of 
course,  chiefly  dependent  on  the  food  fed,  but  not  entirely 
so. 

Milk  giving  is  dependent  on  maternity,  first  with  refer- 
ence to  its  possibility,  and  second,  with  reference  to  its  re- 
newal. The  instances  are  exceedingly  rare  though  not  en- 
tirely unknown,  in  which  cows  can  be  made  to  produce 
milk,  in  the  absence  of  maternity.  It  is  a  provision  arranged- 
for  by  nature,  whereby  suitable  food  is  prepared  by  the 
cow  for  her  progeny  to  sustain  it  from  birth  until  it  is  old 
enough  to  live  upon  other  food.  In  cows  left  to  the  in- 
fluences of  nature  only,  it  ceases  entirely  as  soon  as  the 
calf  is  able  to  provide  otherwise  for  itself,  but,  subject  to 
man's  control,  it  may  be  prolonged  indefinitely  within  cer- 
tain limits.  Beyond  these,  no  power  or  skill  can  prolong 
its  continuance,  hence  the  necessity  for  renewal  from  time 
to  time  through  the  production  of  progeny.  Such  renewal 
is  customary  with  the  cow,  under  normal  conditions,  about 
once  a  year,  but  frequently  it  occurs  at  irregular  periods, 
owing  to  various  causes. 


43°  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  milk  yield  is  greatest  a  short  time  subsequently  to 
the  time  of  calving.  That  it  is  not  greatest  at  the  time  of 
calving  is  also  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  otherwise  the 
calf  could  not  take  a  sufficiently  large  quantity  of  the  milk 
from  the  udder,  in  consequence  of  which  disaster  might 
result  to  the  cow.  When  deposited  beyond  a  certain 
quantity  in  the  receptacles  of  the  udder  and  not  removed 
at  such  a  time,  milk  fever  and  other  ills  may  follow.  The 
increase  is  gradual  and  continuous  until  maximum  produc- 
tion is  reached.  The  duration  of  this  interval  varies  in 
cows  and  in  the  same  cow,  owing  in  part  at  least  to  the 
condition  of  the  udder.  The  greater  the  degree  of  in- 
flammation, which  to  some  extent  is  frequently  present  at 
the  time  of  calving,  the  longer  is  the  time  required.  Usually 
maximum  yields  are  reached  in  from  two  to  three  weeks 
from  the  date  of  calving. 

Maximum  yields  having  been  reached,  they  remain 
normal  for  a  time.  This  period  is  usually  short,  only  cover- 
ing a  few  weeks  at  the  longest.  Its  continuance  is  de- 
pendent to  a  considerable  degree  on  the  food  fed,  but  it 
would  seem  also  to  be  influenced  to  some  degree  by  in- 
heritance and  habit  as  well.  Declension  then  begins  grad- 
ually and  continues  at  a  ratio  more  or  less  regular,  until 
milk  giving  finally  ceases.  Professor  Sturtevant  concludes 
that  the  average  decrease  in  the  milk  yields  from  month  to 
month  is  about  9  per  cent. 

While  the  absolute  amount  of  milk  produced  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  kind  and  amount  of  the  food  fed,  it  is 
by  no  means  entirely  so.  No  amount  of  food  fed  to  two 
cows  practically  equal  in  milk  giving  power,  can  secure 
from  them  equal  milk  yields,  when  one  is  considerably 
more  advanced  in  lactation  than  the  other.  Milk  yields 
are  largely  dependent  on  the  activity  of  the  milk  gland, 
which  is  greatest  shortly  after  parturition,  and  which  grad- 
ually lessens  until  finally  it  ceases  altogether.  Food  that 
is  eminently  suitable  and  persistent  and  careful  milking  may 
greatly  prolong  the  milk-giving  period  in  the  absence  of 


MILK      PRODUCTION  43! 

renewal  in  the  natural  way,  sometimes  to  the  duration  of 
two  or  three  years,  but  in  such  instances  the  yields  become 
so  small  after  a  time  as  to  prove  unprofitable. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  milk  yields  shall  be  well 
sustained  during  the  normal  season  for  milk-giving,  by 
feeding  liberal  supplies  of  suitable  food.  Should  declension 
in  milk  yields  result  at  a  period  unnecessarily  soon,  from 
want  of  food  suitable  and  sufficient  in  quantity,  and  should 
the  attempt  be  made  to  advance  the  milk,  yields  subsequently 
by  giving  proper  food,  it  will  be  only  partially  successful. 
The  yield  may  be  increased  but  not  to  what  it  would  have 
been  under  proper  management.  The  increase  possible 
would  be  proportionate  to  the  extent  of  the  declension  in 
the  milk  yields,  and  to  the  duration  of  the  period  covered 
by  such  declension. 

During  the  period  of  highest  milk  yields,  the  cow  and 
a.so  other  females  generally  lose  more  or  less  in  flesh.  The 
loss  in  body  weight  is  proportionate  to  the  relative  milk 
yields,  but  it  may  be  affected  to  some  extent  by  other  in- 
fluences such  as  inheritance  and  the  nature  of  the  food.  As 
the  milk  yields  decline,  the  lost  weight  is  gradually  re- 
stored under  normal  conditions,  until  it  reaches  the  former 
level. 

Age  and  milk  production. — Milk  producing  capacity 
in  cows  may  be  divided  into  three  periods,  as  follows :  ( I ) 
The  period  which  leads  up  to  maximum  yields;  (2)  the 
period  of  maximum  yields;  and  (3)  the  period  of  declen- 
sion which  follows.  These  vary  in  individual  animals  and 
to  some  extent  in  breeds.  A  good  cow  properly  managed 
should  be  profitable  in  the  dairy  for  nine  or  ten  years.  This 
period,  however,  is  longer  than  the  average  dairy  cow  is 
retained  in  the  average  herd.  Assuming  that  the  cow 
produces  profitably  for,  say  nine  years,  the  three  periods 
above  referred  to  will  cover  three  years  each.  The  discus- 
sion that  follows  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  cows 
come  into  milk  when  two  years  old,  which  is  usually  the 
case  with  dairy  cows. 


432  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

During  the  first  period;  viz.,  from  two  to  five  years, 
there  is  gradual  increase  in  milk-giving  capacity.  This  in- 
crease is  material,  frequently  amounting  to  considerably 
more  than  50  per  cent.  The  relatively  low  production  dur- 
ing this  period  is  caused  in  part  by  the  diversion  of  food 
nutrients  to  promote  increase  in  growth.  This,  however, 
does  not  furnish  a  complete  explanation,  as  milk  produc- 
tion increases  more  relatively  than'  weight,  and  it  continues 
for  a  time  after  increase  in  weight  has  ceased.  It  would 
seem  fair  to  assume,  that  there  is  increase  in  capacity  of 
function  in  the  milk  gland,  the  outcome  in  part  at  least  of 
use,  on  the  same  principle  that  use  strengthens  any  other 
organ  of  the  body  up  to  a  certain  limit. 

During  the  second  period ;  viz.,  from  six  to  nine  years, 
the  yields  should  not  vary  much,  but  toward  the  latter 
portion  of  the  same,  the  tendency  toward  declension  is 
accentuated  in  many  instances.  On  the  whole,  however, 
the  years  covered  by  this  period  are  those  of  the  most  prof- 
itable production  in  the  cow,  notwithstanding  the  greater 
activity  of  the  digestive  and  assimilative  functions  during 
the  previous  period. 

During  the  third  period;  viz.,  from  nine  to  12  years, 
the  decline  in  production  continues,  although  it  is  not  rapid, 
not  nearly  so  marked  as  a  rule  as  the  increase  during  the 
first  period.  The  value  of  a  cow  in  the  dairy,  therefore,  is 
greater  during  the  third  period  than  during  the  first. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  however,  that  in  actual  ex- 
perience, the  variations  may  be  considerable,  owing  to  the 
way  in  which  a  cow  is  fed.  The  machinery  of  digestion 
may  be  driven  at  a  rate  so  rapid  through  high  feeding, 
that  the  first  period  may  prove  the  most  profitable,  and 
that  a  cow's  usefulness  may  be  at  an  end  before  the  close 
of  the  second  period.  In  some  instances  maximum  produc- 
tion may  not  be  reached  until  the  seventh  year,  in  other 
instances  it  is  reached  at  five  years,  and  yet  again  produc- 
tion may  be  more  profitable  in  the  ninth  year  than  in  the 
eighth. 


MILK      PRODUCTION  433 

The  relation  between  actual  and  profitable  production 
is  close  and  intimate.  Actual  production  in  the  first  period 
has  been  found  by  experiment  to  be  less  profitable  the  first 
period  than  the  second,  and  more  profitable  the  second 
than  the  third.  In  other  words  more  food  relatively  is  re- 
quired to  produce  100  pounds  of  milk  during  the  first 
than  the  second  period  and  less  food  relatively  during  the 
second  than  the  third. 

Large  and  small  cows. — Authorities  are  not  all  agreed 
as  to  the  relative  profit  from  large  and  small  cows,  respec- 
tively. Such  disagreement  results  probably  from  the  ob- 
served fact  that  experience  has  shown  that  the  bearing 
of  size  on  production  if  operative  at  all,  is  much  less  so 
than  that  of  various  other  influences  apart  from  size,  such 
as  inheritance  and  individuality.  The  balance  of  testimony, 
however,  favors  the  view  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
large  cows  of  the  breed  or  grade  are  on  the  whole  more 
profitable  relatively  than  smaller  ones. 

Three  experiments  conducted  by  Brandl  with  small 
and  large  sows,  respectively,  gave  the  following  results: 
The  small  cows  gave  less  milk  relatively  than  the  large 
ones,  and  consumed  more  food  relatively  in  making  it,  but 
the  milk  was  somewhat  richer  in  fat.  The  result  last  stated 
is  in  keeping  with  the  general  relation  between  quantity  in 
milk  production  and  the  fat  which  it  contains,  (see  p.  427). 
The  large  cows  not  only  produced  more  milk  relatively 
and  absolutely  than  the  small  ones  and  on  less  feed  relatively, 
but  when  farrow  they  proved  more  persistent  milkers  and 
sold  at  a  greater  relative  profit  per  head,  after  having  been 
kept  almost  a  year.  Fifteen  of  each  class  were  included  in 
the  experiment,  the  average  weight  of  the  lighter  cows  be- 
ing 979  pounds  and  of  the  heavier  1,205  pounds. 

Woll  gives  a  summary  of  the  results  of  breed  test 
No.  i,  conducted  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago, 
1893,  and  bearing  on  this  question.  The  cows,  75  in  num- 
ber, are  divided  into  three  groups,  and  each  group  con- 
tained the  same  number  of  Jerseys,  Guernseys  and  Short- 


434  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

horns  respectively.  They  are  classified  as  light,  medium 
and  heavy.  The  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  butter  fat 
with  these  respective  groups  was  $17.93,  $17.79  and  $17.42. 

The  following  facts  are  noteworthy :  ( I )  The  25  Jer- 
sey cows  entered  in  the  competition  at  the  Lousiana  Pur- 
chase Exposition  in  St.  Louis,  1904,  were  considerably 
larger  in  size  than  the  average  of  the  breed.  They  weighed 
911.2  pounds  on  an  average  at  the  commencement  of  the 
test  and  983  pounds  at  its  close.  These  cows  were  used 
in  a  test  of  which  economic  production  was  a  prominent 
factor.  (2)  The  cows  that  have  proved  the  world's  record 
makers  are  considerably  above  the  average  in  size.  (3)  The 
same  is  true  of  a  majority  of  the  cows  entered  in  the  vari- 
ous advanced  registry  associations. 

While  the  difference  in  relative  profit  from  large  and 
small  cows  respectively  is  not  large,  it  unquestionably  be- 
longs to  those  of  large  size.  It  is  probably  the  outcome  of 
the  relation  between  size  and  the  relative  amount  of  the 
food  maintenance  required.  This  in  mature  animals  is 
even  more  than  one  half  the  entire  ration.  Probably  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  the  heat  generated  by  the  food  goes 
to  supply  the  loss  through  radiation,  perspiration  and  respi- 
ration. The  loss  through  radiation  is  greater  relatively  in 
the  small  than  in  the  large  animal,  owing  to  the  relatively 
larger  body  surfaces  in  the  former. 

But  aside  from  relative  milk  production,  there  are 
some  reasons  why  breeders  should  aim  to  produce  relatively 
large  rather  than  small  cows  for  the  breed.  These  include 
the  following:  (i)  Good  constitution  and  stamina  are 
more  frequently  associated  with  well  developed  animals,  in- 
cluding cows,  than  with  those  less  well  developed.  (2)  Uni- 
formity in  size  should  be  the  aim  of  the  breeder  as  an 
evidence  of  good  and  skilful  breeding,  and  the  standard 
thus  set  should  favor  at  least  average  size  for  the  breed,  as 
a  guaranty  of  the  absence  of  degeneracy.  (3)  Animals  of  full 
size,  or  rather  more,  take  the  market  more  readily  than  those 
under  size,  whether  sold  for  the  dairy  or  the  shambles. 


MILK     PRODUCTION  435 

Relative  milk-giving  capacity. — But  little  information 
can  be  given  with  reference  to  the  milk-giving  capacity 
of  any  of  the  classes  of  live  stock,  except  cows,  that  is  based 
on  American  experience.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the 
question  is  greatly  important  except  in  the  prospective 
sense,  that  is,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  possible  sources 
other  than  cows,  from  which  milk  may  be  obtained.  In 
discussing  the  question,  therefore,  something  may  be  said: 
(i)  Regarding  the  milk-giving  capacity  of  cows;  (2)  the 
probable  milk  giving  capacity  of  other  domestic  animals, 
as  mares,  ewes,  and  female  goats,  usually  spoken  of  as 
nannies  and  (3)  the  probable  sources  of  milk  production  in 
the  future. 

The  difference  in  capacity  in  cows  to  give  milk,  is 
simply  surprising.  In  well  regulated  dairies,  6,000  pounds 
a  year  per  cow  may  be  set  down  as  the  minimum  of  pos- 
sible production.  It  would  be  safe  to  affirm  that  the  average 
annual  yield  of  all  the  cows  milked  at  the  present  time  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  is  not  more  than  half  that 
amount.  With  individuals  of  some  breeds  and  also  of  some 
grades,  it  is  easily  possible  to  obtain  10,000  pounds  of  milk 
a  year  without  resorting  to  feeding  unduly  forced.  For 
the  facts  regarding  maximum  production,  see  page  418,  and 
for  the  discussion  of  the  influences  that  affect  quantity  in 
production,  see  page  424. 

While  no  data  based  on  American  experience  with 
reference  to  the  amount  of  milk  produced  by  mares  dur- 
ing lactation  is  available,  the  average  amount  given  by  a 
mare  is  fully  equal  to  and  probably  more  than  that  given 
by  the  cow  which  merely  suckles  her  calf  up  to  the  period 
of  weaning.  Basing  the  amount  of  milk  given  on  the  in- 
crease in  the  weight  resulting,  the  average  foal  will  con- 
sume more  milk  than  the  average  calf.  It  would  seem 
probable,  therefore,  that  mares  could  be  so  managed  as  to 
produce  milk  yields  fully  equal  to  those  of  cows.  At  the 
Wisconsin  experiment  station  it  was  ascertained  that 
through  weighing  the  lambs,  both  before  and  after  nursing, 


436  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

certain  grade  Shropshire  ewes  gave  from  2.51  to  3.96 
pounds  daily.  Experiments  at  the  same  station  conducted 
similarly  with  sows  of  the  lard  types,  found  that  they  gave 
from  4.1  to  5.8  pounds  daily.  The  tests  were  made  at  in- 
tervals during  the  nursing  period. 

Under  American  conditions,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  the  cow  will  continue  to  be  the  source  from  which  the 
greater  portion  of  the  milk  needed  will  come.  Mare's 
milk  is  not  likely  to  be  used  as  food  for  man,  if  for  no 
other  reason  than  the  much  greater  ease  with  which  cow's 
milk  can  be  drawn  from  the  udder.  The  milk  breeds  of 
sheep  in  certain  areas  of  West  Central  Europe  are  credited 
with  giving  in  response  to  hand  milking,  fully  8  pounds 
per  day  soon  after  coming  into  lactation.  But,  should  even 
greater  yields  be  obtainable,  as  doubtless  they  could  be 
under  judicious  management,  it  may  be  said  that,  under 
American  conditions,  ewe's  milk  is  not  likely  to  supplant 
cow's  milk  for  the  reason,  first,  that  cow's  milk  is  more 
readily  obtained;  second,  it  is  more  difficult  to  rear  lambs 
under  artificial  conditions  than  calves,  and  third,  the  sheep 
is  much  liable  to  be  preyed  upon  by  dogs.  It  may  be 
different,  however,  with  milking  goats  which  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  America.  It  is  not  improbable  that, 
in  the  future  not  distant,  many  artisans  on  the  outskirts  of 
cities  may  yet  each  keep  his  goat  to  supply  fresh  milk 
for  the  family.  They  are  much  less  dainty  of  their  food 
than  sheep,  and  are  much  less  liable  to  be  harmed. 

Protection  for  cows  in  summer. — In  summer  cows  re- 
quire protection :  ( i )  From  the  sun's  rays  when  these  are 
so  warm  as  to  produce  discomfort;  (2)  from  flies  during 
the  fly  season  and  (3)  from  rain  storms,  cold,  prolonged 
and  severe.  Neglecting  to  furnish  any  one  of  these  will 
seriously  lessen  milk  yields.  While  such  protection  is  mark- 
edly beneficial  to  all  classes  of  domestic  animals,  its  im- 
portance is  especially  emphasized  in  the  case  of  cows,  be- 
cause of  the  relatively  high  value  of  the  milk  product  which 
they  furnish. 


MILK      PRODUCTION  437 

Cows  are,  of  course,  protected  from  the  sun's  rays 
when  they  are  furnished  with  shade.  This  may  come 
from  trees  growing  in  the  pastures,  singly  or  in  clumps,  or 
in  places  accessible  to  them,  by  a  cheap  roof  in  the  pasture 
sustained  by  poles  and  covered  with  straw,  or  by  the  stables 
in  which  they  are  kept  in  winter.  Trees  and  roofs  provided 
in  the  pastures  answer  the  purpose  until  the  season  of  flies. 
To  shade  from  either  of  these  sources  during  the  continu- 
ance of  the  fly  season,  is  the  strong  objection  that  they 
furnish  breeding  places  in  which  flies  multiply  with  great 
rapidity.  This  is  owing  to  the  droppings  which  accumulate 
in  such  centers  in  which  the  flies  deposit  their  eggs.  Be- 
cause of  this,  shade  furnished  by  the  stable  is  preferable, 
since  when  properly  provided  it  is  cooler,  and  as  shown 
below,  flies  may  be  in  a  great  measure  excluded.  Basement 
stables  are  especially  suitable  for  summer  "  rotection  because 
of  their  greater  relative  coolness. 

Absolute  protection'  from  flies  in  the  fly  season  is  not 
practical  without  excessive  outlay  in  the  materials  used 
in  spraying  the  animals,  or  in  the  labor  involved  in  applying 
them,  or  in  the  two  combined.  Nevertheless  very  much 
may  be  done  with  profit  to  promote  their  comfort  at  such 
seasons.  These  methods  of  protection  are  adopted:  (i) 
They  are  kept  in  stables  during  the  day.  These  are 
thoroughly  ventilated  and  yet  kept  so  dark  that  flies 
do  not  care  to  stay,  much  less  to  work  in  them;  (2) 
they  are  sprayed  with  some  preparation  offensive 
to  the  flies,  either  through  its  odor  or  its  sticky 
character,  with  sufficient  frequency  to  effect  the  purpose 
and  (3)  they  are  covered  with  blankets,  light,  coarse  and 
cheap,  and  these  are  kept  in  place  by  elastic  bands,  so  that 
the  underline  also  is  protected. 

Of  these  three  methods,  the  first  is  unquestionably  the 
best,  as  it  furnishes  more  of  coolness  than  the  other  forms 
of  shade,  gives  the  most  perfect  of  the  three  forms  of 
protection  from  flies,  and  makes  it  easily  practicable  to 
give  the  cows  supplemental  food  which  is  necessary  during 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

much  of  the  grazing  season.  The  chief  objectien  to  it  is 
the  labor  involved  in  removing  the  droppings,  but  this 
is  largely  offset  by  the  increased  value  of  the  same  as  com- 
pared with  having  it  deposited  in  the  pastures  where  much 
waste  follows.  Much  may  also  be  done  to  prevent  the 
multiplication  of  flies  by  promptly  removing  all  the  manure 
from  the  yards  in  the  spring,  and  by  drawing  daily  or  at 
quite  short  intervals  that  made  subsequently  and  applying 
it  when  needed.  A  free  use  of  lime  in  the  yards  is  also 
further  helpful.  The  methods  of  darkening  and  ventilating 
the  stables,  the  mixtures  used  in  spraying  and  the  exact 
nature  of  the  blankets  are  foreign  to  the  design  of  this 
work  and  will  be  discussed  in  one  that  is  to  follow  on  the 
Feeding  and  Management  of  Cattle. 

Gentle  summer  rains  do  not  harm  cows  in  milk  while 
in  the  pastures.  They  may  prove  grateful  to  them.  It  is 
different  with  violent  rains.  Even  though  not  cold,  they 
are  in  some  degree  harmful.  But  most  of  all  is  exposure 
to  long  and  cold  rains  harmful,  and  all  the  more  so  when 
these  are  intense.  Such  rains  occasionally  occur  both  in 
the  late  spring  and  the  early  autumn,  lasting  in  some  in- 
stances for  three  days  at  a  time.  Prolonged  exposure  to 
one  such  storm  may  result  in  a  lessened  milk  flow  which 
may  not  be  recovered  from  for  many  days.  The  wisdom  of 
housing  milch  cows  at  night  as  soon  as  the  nights  are 
cool  enough  to  produce  any  discomfort,  will  be  readily 
apparent. 

Shelter  for  cows  in  winter. — The  necessity  for  provid- 
ing cows  with  suitable  shelter  in  winter  is  based :  ( I )  On 
the  relative  inability  of  the  system  to  resist  the  influences 
of  low  temperatures  when  not  in  high  flesh;  (2)  on  the 
marked  susceptibility  of  the  function  of  milk  secretion  to 
changes  of  temperature,  especially  to  those  that  bring  cold, 
and  (3)  because  of  the  favorable  influence  which  furnish- 
ing such  protection  exerts  on  the  economy  of  production. 

The  cow  in  milk  usually  carries  only  a  moderate 
amount  of  flesh  and  but  little  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  the 


MILK      PRODUCTION  439 

cattle  beast  that  is  being  fattened  usually  soon  lays  on  a 
covering  of  external  fat,  which  goes  far  to  protect  the 
system  from  the  penetrating  influences  of  cold.  Expose 
a  milch  cow  in  moderate  or  lean  flesh  to  cold  beyond  a 
certain  degree,  and  soon  she  stands  with  the  back  drawn 
up  as  an  evidence  of  her  discomfort.  The  fat  steer 
similarly  exposed  will  show  no  signs  of  discomfort. 

The  susceptibility  of  the  function  of  milk  secretion  to 
the  influence  of  low  temperatures  is  shown  by  the  quick- 
ness of  the  reduction  which  takes  place  in  the  milk  yields 
consequent  upon  such  exposure,  and  by  the  constancy  of 
the  same.  The  effect  of  such  exposure  will  be  manifest  in 
the  shrinkage  in  yield  in  the  first  milking  following,  and 
in  every  succeeding  milking  during  the  continuance  of  the 
exposure.  If  continued  for  a  period  of  considerable  length, 
the  result  will  be  that  the  yields  will  not  become  normal 
again,  though  the  cause  of  the  reduction  should  be  removed. 
It  is  probably  caused  to  some  extent  by  the  relaxed  and 
somewhat  reduced  condition  of  the  system  consequent  up- 
on maternity,  and  in  part  by  the  diversion  of  a  portion  of 
the  nutrients  that  would  otherwise  be  concerned  in  making 
milk  to  the  defense  of  the  system  against  the  cold. 

In  an  experiment  conducted  at  the  Indiana  experiment 
station,  it  was  found  that  the  cows  that  were  housed  during 
the  48  days  of  the  experiment,  gained  in  flesh  considerably, 
while  the  latter  lost  flesh.  The  former  also  gave  consid- 
erably more  milk  on  less  feed.  Professor  Plumb,  who 
conducted  the  experiment,  concludes  that  a  saving  of  $4.26 
per  cow  was  effected  by  the  shelter  furnished,  not- 
withstanding that  the  cows  exposed  were  given  the  pro- 
tection of  an  open  shed  in  a  sheltered  place,  and  that  they 
were  not  confined  to  it  daily  for  a  longer  period  than  eight 
hours  in  the  warmer  portion  of  the  day. 

In  view  of  the  above,  the  following  practices  are  to  be 
deprecated:  (i)  Allowing  cows  in  milk  to  roam  through 
corn  stalk  fields  in  winter  in  search  of  what  is  at  best  in- 
ferior milk  producing  food;  (2)  allowing  such  cows  to 


440  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

remain  out  on  pasture  after  the  nights  begin  to  turn  cold 
or  even  during  the  day  in  weather  that  produces  discom- 
fort because  of  its  inclemency;  (3)  allowing  them  to  stay 
in  the  yard  during  the  larger  portion  of  even  mild  days 
in  winter,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  rest  more  con- 
tentedly in  their  accustomed  stalls. 

The  nature  of  the  protection  required  will  depend  upon 
such  conditions  as  the  character  of  the  climate  and  the  cost 
of  providing  it.  The  question  cannot  be  discussed  here 
further  than  to  say,  that  it  matters  not  what  the  nature  of 
the  materials  may  be  which  furnish  it,  providing  it  secures 
a  temperature  between  40  to  60°  in  winter,  ample  light, 
freedom  from  dampness  and  a  constant  supply  of  pure 
air.  It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  cows,  not  in  milk 
gather  more  reserve  power  for  the  milking  period  which 
follows  when  given  large  liberty  and  more  exposure  dur- 
ing the  non-milk-giving  interval. 

Feeding  grain  to  cows  on  pasture. — The  discussion 
of  this  question  involves  the  consideration :  ( i )  Of  the 
direct  return  in  milk  and  butter  fat  from  feeding  the  grain ; 
(2)  the  residual  effect  from  such  feeding;  (3)  the  saving 
effected  in  the  pasture  and  (4)  the  influence  on  fertiliza- 
tion. Notwithstanding  that  several  trials  have  been  con- 
ducted at  various  experiment  stations,  practical  men  are 
much  divided  in  their  opinions  with  reference  to  the  ad- 
vantage from  feeding  grain  to  cows  on  pasture. 

Judged  by  the  direct  results  obtained  from  feeding 
grain  to  cows  on  succulent  and  abundant  pastures,  the 
conclusion  would  be  reached  that  there  is  no  profit  in 
such  feeding.  In  nearly  all  the  trials  made  there  was  in- 
crease in  the  milk  yields  and  consequently  in  the  butter 
fat,  but  not  in  the  percentage  of  the  same.  The  increased 
return  did  not  in  all  instances  pay  for  the  grain,  but  it  did 
in  some  instances.  Little  or  no  direct  profit,  however,  re- 
sulted. But  there  was  more  increase  in  weight  from  the 
animals  to  which  grain  was  given,  which  so  far  meant  a 


MILK      PRODUCTION  44! 

laying  up  as  it  were  of  reserve  power  in  the  system,  to  be 
utilized  in  future  production. 

By  the  residual  effects  from  feeding  grain  to  cows  on 
pasture  is  meant  the  influence  which  such  feeding  exerts 
on  future  production,  more  especially  on  production  the 
following  season.  An  interesting  trial  was  conducted  at 
the  Cornell  experiment  station  in  order  to  throw  light 
upon  this  question.  Six  cows  which  had  been  fed  grain 
somewhat  freely  the  previous  summer  and  six  that  had 
not  been  so  fed  were  grazed  in  the  same  pasture.  In  the 
test  now  considered  no  grain  was  given  to  either  lot.  The 
return  from  the  lot  which  had  been  fed  grain  the  previous 
season  was  16  per  cent  greater  than  that  from  the  cows  in 
the  other  lot.  The  heifers  in  the  grain-fed  lot  also  made 
better  development,  which  meant  the  promise  of  superior 
future  usefulness.  These  results  coincide  with  the  opinions 
of  many  practical  men  regarding  the  utility  of  feeding  a 
light  ration  of  grain  to  cows  in  milk  through  all  the  season 
'of  pasturing. 

The  saving  effected  in  the  pasture  is  in  some  instances 
an  item  of  material  importance,  although  in  some  of  these 
trials  it  has  apparently  been  lost  sight  of.  It  is  fail- 
to  assume  that  a  pound  of  dry  matter  fed  in  the 
form  of  grain  will  effect  a  saving  of  an  equal  amount 
of  dry  matter  in  the  form  of  pasture.  This  would  be  of 
little  or  no  importance  where  the  pasture  is  superabundant, 
but  when  pasture  is  insufficient  in  supply  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  the  importance  of  such  a  saving  would  be  material. 

The  influence  on  fertilization  would  also  mean  some- 
thing. It  would  depend  on  the  kind  and  amount  of  the 
grain  or  meal  fed.  If  cottonseed  meal  or  wheat  bran  were 
fed,  the  enrichment  added  in  the  droppings  would  be  ma- 
terial. The  advantage,  however,  from  such  fertilization, 
would  be  much  less  than  would  result  from  feeding  the 
same  amount  of  grain  or  meal  to  sheep  that  are  being  grazed. 

The  whole  question  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
( i )  When  cows  are  first  turned  out  on  grass  in  the  spring, 


442  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS  ( 

grain  feeding  should  be  continued  at  least  for  a  time  because 
of  the  corrective  influence  which  it  has  on  the  tendency  to 
undue  laxity  in  the  bowels  caused  by  the  grass;  (2) 
whether  grain  is  fed  or  not  during  the  weeks  when  grass 
is  abundant  and  succulent,  it  should  be  fed  as  soon  as  the 
pasture  becomes  insufficient  in  quantity  or  dry  in  character ; 
(3)  that  when  pasture  is  abundant  and  succulent  no  direct 
profit  will  be  obtained  in  the  return  in  milk.  But,  (4)  when 
the  residual  effects  are  considered  on  future  production, 
the  saving  that  is  effected  in  the  pasture,  and  also  the  re- 
sults on  fertilization,  it  would  seem  profitable  in  all  or 
nearly  all  instances  to  feed  more  or  less  grain  at  all  times 
to  cows  on  pasture.  The  only  exception  would  be,  instances 
in  which  the  pasture  supply  for  the  season  exceeded  the 
needs  of  the  cows.  But,  the  amount  fed  should,  of  course, 
be  much  less  when  pasture  is  at  its  best  than  at  other 
times. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

CONSIDERATIONS  THAT  RELATE  TO  GENERAL 
FEEDING. 

Prominent   among   the    considerations    that    relate    to 
general  feeding  are  the  following. 

1.  Generous  feeding  during  pregnancy. 

2.  Feeding  the   first   milk. 

3.  Food  for  maintenance. 

4.  Growth  and  future  production. 

5.  Foods  vary  in  adaptation. 

6.  Foods  that  influence  digestion. 

7.  When  to  feed  concentrates. 

8.  Proportion  of  concentrates  to  roughage. 

9.  Changing  foods. 

10.  Adjusting  foods  and  needs  of  animals. 

11.  Foods,  home  grown  or  purchased. 

12.  Relative  food  values. 

13.  Sustaining  power  of  pastures. 

14.  Condimental  foods. 

15.  The  place  for  self-feeders. 

1 6.  Relative  profits  from  domestic  animals. 
These  are  discussed  in  the  order  named. 

Generous  feeding  during  pregnancy. — The  opinion 
has  become  widely  prevalent  that  what  may  be  termed  high 
condition  or  fleshiness  in  the  pregnant  dam  tells  adversely 
on  reproduction.  It  has  been  claimed  that  it  tells  adversely 
on  the  development  of  the  young  animal  in  uter'o  and  that 
it  is  the  harbinger  of  trouble  at  the  time  of  parturition. 
This  opinion  rests  doubtless  on  the  observed  facts,  that  the 
progeny  of  very  fat  dams  when  born  is  of  small  size,  and 
that  trouble  does  arise  more  frequently  with  such  dams 
and  also  with  their  progeny  at  paturition  than  with  dams 
less  fleshy.  But  it  fails  to  take  into  account  the  source  from 
which  the  fat  has  come,  as  is  shown  below.  In  discussing 

443 


444  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

this  subject,  it  will  be  safe  to  affirm:  (i)  That  the  food 
of  dams  that  are  pregnant  should  be  generous;  (2)  that 
it  should  be  richer  for  pregnant  dams  that  are  immature 
than  for  those  that  are  mature,  and  (3)  that  when  harm 
comes  to  such  dams  or  their  progeny  from  liberal  feeding, 
it  is  because  the  ration  is  unsuitable  in  kind,  rather  than 
in  quantity. 

Dams  that  are  pregnant  should  be  fed  generously  for 
the  following  reasons :  First,  at  such  a  time  they  are  sus- 
taining two  animals.  The  food  which  results  in  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo  comes,  of  course,  from  the  dam.  Oth- 
erwise she  would  utilize  it  herself  as  far  as  necessary  to 
meet  her  needs.  Second,  because  of  the  heavy  drain  upon 
the  system  of  the  dam  in  supplying  the  progeny  with  milk 
after  birth.  She  is  almost  certain  to  loose  flesh  at  such 
a  time  and  all  the  more  so  if  "she  is  a  generous  milker.  This 
loss  in  some  instances  is  not  less  than  100  pounds  within 
say  150  days  of  the  time  of  calving  even  though  the  feeding 
is  generous.  This  means  lhat  to  some  extent  she  draws 
upon  certain  of  the  organized  constituents  or  materials  of 
her  system,  particularly  the  fat  to  furnish  food  for  her  young 
offspring.  The  more  fleshy  she  is  at  the  time  of  parturition, 
the  more  of  this  reserve  is  there  to  draw  from,  the  less 
will  she  suffer  from  emaciation,  and  the  more  generously 
will  the  progeny  be  maintained.  Third,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  prevent  some  loss  of  flesh  in  a  generous  milk- 
ing dam  for  a  time  at  least,  during  the  early  part  of  the 
milk  giving  period,  howsoever  liberal  the  feeding  may  be. 
If  such  a  dam  is  in  low  flesh  at  the  time  of  parturition,  the 
further  loss  of  flesh  which  follows  lowers  her  vital  energies 
to  such  an  extent  that  her  progeny  is  not  so  well  sustained, 
and  her  future  usefulness  is  so  far  lessened.  Her  system 
must  be  built  up  again  before  profitable  conception  will 
follow. 

When  pregnant  dams  are  immature,  a  threefold  burden 
is  put  upon  them.  The  first  is,  that  of  maintenance ;  the  sec- 
ond, that  of  nourishing  the  embryo,  and  the  third,  that  of 


GENERAL     FEEDING  445 

further  development.  It  is  very  evident  that  more  food  rela- 
tively must  be  given  to  such  an  animal  than  to  one  mature, 
and  that  it  should  also  be  richer  relatively  in  protein  to  sus- 
tain properly  the  dual  development  that  is  required.  With 
such  a  division  of  the  energies  of  the  system,  poor  feeding 
would  be  doubly  harmful. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  say,  that  when  pregnant  ani- 
mals are  supplied  with  food  rightly  balanced  as  to  its  nutri- 
ents, and  with  proper  adjustment  between  the  roughage  and 
concentrates,  they  are  not  much  likely  to  accumulate  flesh 
to  the  extent  of  working  harm  to  themselves  or  to  their 
young.  It  is  when  the  nutrients  are  not  rightly  balanced 
that  such  harm  occurs.  This  may  and  does  happen,  when 
sows  for  instance  are  fed  mainly  on  corn  while  pregnant, 
or  when  cows  in  a  similar  condition  are  fed  mainly  on 
carbonaceous  food,  such  as  rye  and  corn  fodder.  In  ad- 
dition to  possessing  a  large  proportion  of  protein,  the  food 
for  such  animals  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  keep 
the  digestion  correct.  Constipation  is  to  be  carefully 
avoided.  The  judicious  feeding  of  such  supplements  as 
bran,  oil  cake  and  field  roots  at  such  a  time  is  to  be  strongly 
commended.  Instances  may  also  occur  when  the  animals 
would  become  so  fleshy  as  to  disincline  them  to  take  enough 
exercise  for  the  well-being  of  their  unborn  progeny,  but 
usually  this  occurs  only  when  the  carbonaceous  elements  in 
the  ration  are  in  excess. 

Feeding  the  first  milk. — The  properties  of  the  milk 
first  drawn  from  the  dam  after  parturition  are  very  differ- 
ent, in  degree  at  least,  from  those  which  it  possesses  when 
normal.  This  milk,  known  as  the  colostrum,  is  more  dense 
in  its  consistency  and  yellow  in  color  than  natural  milk. 
The  protein,  that  is  the  casein  and  albumen,  in  the  first  milk 
of  the  cow,  is  about  five  times  the  amount  of  these  products 
in  ordinary  cow's  milk  and  may  considerably  exceed  the 
proportions  named.  But  it  is  much  lower  in  milk  sugar  and 
is  also  lower  in  fat.  The  composition  of  the  first  milk  is 
a  provision  of  nature  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  newly  born 


446  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

progeny.  In  addition  tox  providing  nourishment,  it  tends 
to  cleanse  the  intestines,  and  thus  to  pave  the  way  for 
the  natural  processes  of  digestion. 

The  importance  of  giving  such  milk  to  the  young  ani- 
mal as  its  first  meal  cannot  be  over-estimated.  In  its  ab- 
sence, constipation  is  likely  to  follow,  which  will  terminate 
fatally,  unless  relieved.  No  substitute  can  be  given  that 
will  in  every  respect  take  the  place  of  colostrum.  Even 
though  it  is  known  that  the  dam  is  tubercular,  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  withhold  her  milk  from  her  young  calf, 
until  the  processes  of  digestion  have  been  properly  begun. 
The  laxative  properties  of  the  milk  would  seem  to  make 
such  feeding  safe. 

But  it  sometimes  happens  that  colostrum  cannot  be  ob- 
tained from  the  dam  of  the  young  animal,  as  in  instances 
when  the  dam  dies  while  bringing  forth  her  progeny.  In 
such  instances,  if  colostrum  can  be  obtained  from  some  other 
dam  of  the  same  species,  it  will  usually  effect  the  end 
sought.  This,  however,  is  seldom  possible,  hence,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  administer  some  substances  that  will  cleanse 
the  digestive  tract  before  any  food  is  given.  Castor  oil  is 
generally  used  for  this  purpose.  The  ordinary  dose  for  a 
colt  or  a  calf  is  an  ounce;  for  a  lamb,  a  teaspoonful,  and 
for  a  young  pig,  about  half  a  teaspoonful.  Sometimes  an 
injection  of  warm  water  will  effect  the  end  sought.  In 
other  instances,  an  injection  should  accompany  the  ad- 
ministering of  the  purgative,  as  the  latter,  especially  in 
the  case  of  foals,  will  not  in  all  instances  effect  the  end 
sought  without  such  aid. 

When  accident  occurs  so  that  the  dam's  milk  cannot 
be  given,  the  substitute  on  which  nearly  all  domestic  animals 
must  be  reared  is  cow's  milk.  This  differs  materially  in  its 
constituents  from  the  milk  of  other  domestic  animals.  Cow's 
milk  is  much  richer  in  casein  and  albumen,  also  in  fat  than 
mare's  milk,  hence,  when  it  is  substituted  for  mare's  milk, 
it  is  customary  to  add  one  part  water  to  two  or  three  parts 
of  the  milk,  and  also  to  add  a  teaspoonful  of  common  sugar 


GENERAL     FEEDING  447 

to  each  quart  of  the  milk  thus  diluted.  Ewe's  milk  is  much 
richer  in  protein  and  fat  than  cow's  milk.  When  cow's  milk 
is  substituted,  cream  radded  is  helpful  as  intimated  previ- 
ously, but  the  strippings  .from  the  cow  will  probably  be 
even  more  suitable.  Sow's  milk  is  richer  in  all  constituents 
than  cow's  milk,  hence  when  the  latter  is  fed  to  pigs  quite 
young,  the  addition  of  some  cream  and  sugar  would 
probably  make  it  more  suitable  for  them. 

It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  such  feeding  ap- 
plies to  the  first  days  and  it  may  be  weeks  of  feed- 
ing, rather  than  to  giving  the  first  meal.  The  additions 
mentioned  will  not  make  cow's  milk  to  closely  resemble 
colostrum  in  its  properties.  It  only  makes  it  to  approximate 
the  milk  of  other  animals  in  its  constituents  under  normal 
conditions,  hence  the  wisdom  of  the  treatment  referred  to 
when  colostrum  cannot  be  obtained. 

Food  for  maintenance. — Food  for  maintenance  means 
the  amount  of  food  that  will  keep  an  animal  from  gaining 
or  losing  when  at  rest,  that  is,  when  not  producing  in  the 
form  of  meat,  milk  or  labor,  and  when  not  taking  more 
exercise  than  is  really  necessary  in  order  to  maintain 
health.  It  is  frequently  referred  to  as  the  food  of  support. 
To  find  the  food  for  maintenance,  as  practically  applied  to 
animals  of  all  classes  and  ages,  furnishes  a  complicated 
problem,  owing  to  the  variation  caused  by  growth  and  in- 
dividuality. Because  of  this,  experiments  in  regard  to  it 
have  been  conducted  more  frequently  with  mature  animals. 
However,  the  following  may  be  safely  affirmed  with  regard 
to  it :  ( i )  It  increases  with  reference  to  the  total  nutrients 
required  with  advancing  age;  (2)  production  is  not  pos- 
sible, unless  the  food  given  exceeds  the  amount  required 
for  maintenance;  (3)  the  profit  from  food  consumed  is 
proportionate  to  the  amount  of  the  same  that  is  properly 
assimilated  when  suitable  in  kind. 

That  more  food  would  be  required  for  maintenance 
up  to  maturity  is  apparent,  from  the  larger  bulk  in  the 
animal  economy  to  be  maintained.  That  more  is  required 


448  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

also  after  maturity  has  been  reached  and  as  age  advances, 
is  evident  as  a  result  of  the  less  perfect  assimilation  of  the 
food  consumed  as  the  animal  grows  older.  Individuality 
also  exercises  an  influence,  as  animals  of  the  same  breed, 
sex  and  age,  differ  much  in  their  ability  to  assimilate  food. 
Armsby,  quoting  from  German  investigations,  gives  the 
following  with  reference  to  the  food  of  maintenance  called 
for  to  support  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight  with  oxen  and 
sheep:  Oxen  required  daily,  0.6  pound  digestible  protein 
and  7.5  pounds  digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients.  The 
coarse  wooled  breeds  of  sheep  required,  1.2  pounds  and 
10.8  pounds,  and  the  fine  wooled  breeds,  1.5  pounds  and 
12  pounds  respectively,  of  these  nutrients. 

That  production  of  any  kind  is  not  possible  unless  the 
amount  of  food  given  exceeds  the  amount  for  maintenance 
is  self-evident.  Notwithstanding,  the  instances  are  frequent 
on  the  farm  where  the  food  of  support  is  all  that  is  required. 
Such  is  frequently  the  case  with  horses  that  are  being  car- 
ried through  the  winter.  There  may  be  instances  when  it 
is  judicious  to  feed  a  quantity  somewhat  short  of  main- 
tenance as  when  animals  designed  for  breeding  carry 
an  excess  of  flesh,  or  when  show  animals  are  to  be  reducea 
temporarily,  subsequently  to  the  season  during  which  they 
have  been  exhibited. 

That  the  profit  from  the  food  consumed  is  proportion- 
ate to  the  amount  that  is  properly  assimilated,  is  also  self- 
evident,  hence  the  wisdom  of  feeding  animals  in  excess  of 
the  needs  of  maintenance,  according  to  the  production  re- 
quired of  them.  Pregnant  animals  must  be  given  more 
than  the  food  of  maintenance  to  develop  the  foetus  which 
they  carry.  Horses  at  work  must  be  given  food  in 
excess  of  maintenance  according  to  the  work  required  of 
them.  Cows  in  milk  should  be  given  all  the  suitable  food 
that  they  can  properly  digest  without  overtaxing  the  di- 
gestion, and  the  same  is  true  of  animals  that  are  being- 
fattened.  Growing  animals  should  be  given  enough  suit- 
able food  to  produce  full  development  and  proper  in  kind 


GENERAL     FEEDING  449 

within  the  shortest  period  that  this  may  be  attainable.  To 
withhold  rations  from  animals  up  to  the  limit  stated  is  false 
economy.  In  the  aggregate  the  amount  thust  lost  in  the 
maintenance  of  live  stock  is  very  great.  More  than  half 
the  food  fed  to  live  stock  is  used  as  food  for  maintenance. 

Growth  and  future  production. — If  maximum  produc- 
tion is  to  be  obtained  from  domestic  animals,  they  must 
be  fed  and  managed  at  all  times  with  reference  to  future 
production.  This  principle  applies  :  ( I )  To  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  foetus  carried  by  the  pregnant  animal;  (2)  to 
periods  of  arrested  development  at  any  time  prior  to  ma- 
turity; (3)  to  the  growing  of  animals  with  reference  to  the 
production  of  milk,  meat  or  labor;  (4)  to  the  foods  used  in 
making  growth  with  reference  to  future  growth,  and  (5)  to 
the  over-taxing  of  the  physical  powers,  whether  digestive 
or  muscular. 

Unless  the  young  animal  in  utero  is  properly  sustained 
through  'suitable  food  taken  by  the  dam,  it  begins  life 
with  a  handicap,  which  no  food  or  care  subsequently  can 
ever  completely  overcome.  The  food  and  management  of 
the  dam,  therefore,  during  the  entire  period  of  pregnancy 
will  exert  an  influence  on  the  producing  capacity  of  the 
progeny  during  the  whole  of  the  life  period.  (See  p.  124.) 
For  the  discussion  of  arrested  development  and  the  in- 
fluences that  result  from  it,  see  page  65. 

If  the  heifer  is  to  produce  milk  abundantly  in  the  dairy 
during  development,  the  habit  must  not  be  encouraged  of 
laying  on  fat  beyond  a  certain  limit.  But  this  idea  in 
practice  must  not  be  carried  to  the  extent  of  in  any  way 
hindering  a  vigorous  and  robust  development.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  young  animal  is  grown  to  furnish  meat, 
good  steady  growth  which  carries  along  with  it  a  reason- 
able amount  of  fat  will  influence  favorably  future  produc- 
tion. If  food  is  insufficient  in  quantity  or  nutrition,  or 
excessive  in  both  respects,  the  influence  on  future  produc- 
tion will  be  unfavorable.  Likewise  if  the  growing  colt  is 
fed  improperly  for  the  end  for  which  it  is  being  grown,  the 
results  will  be  disappointing. 


45O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  influence  which  food  has  upon  future  develop- 
ment is  very  potent.  Feed  a  young  animal  on  food  low 
relatively  in. mineral  matter  and  protein  and  the  framework 
is,  deficient  and  weak,  while  it  carries  too  large  a  propor- 
tion of  fat.  The  outcome  is  dwarfed  development.  Corn 
when  fed  to  excess  produces  these  results.  This  has  been 
abundantly  shown  by  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  station 
and  also  in  the  experience  of  individual  feeders.  Swine 
grown  largely  on  pasture,  succulent  and  nourishing,  as 
clover,  alfalfa  or  rape,  will  make  greater  and  more  pro- 
longed gains  than  those  grown  entirely  on  grains.  Suc- 
culent foods  also  put  cattle  and  sheep  into  that  "sappy," 
condition  of  flesh  that  is  favorable  to  quick  gains  and  pro- 
longed fattening.  Present  results,  therefore,  are  not  the 
only  returns  obtained  by  feeding  certain  foods.  The  skilled 
fitter  of  show  animals  feeds  foods  that  will  insure  size,  and 
enough  but  not  too  much  of  flesh  to  ripen  the  animal  too 
soon.  It  is  thus  prepared  for  the  highest  pressure  feeding, 
until  within  a  reasonable  time  of  the  show  season.  Such 
feeding  is  reserved  for  the  last  spurt,  as  it  were,  since  if  this 
were  done  too  soon,  the  necessary  bloom,  that  is  fine  ap- 
pearance, could  not  be  maintained. 

The  influence  of  driving  the  machinery  of  the  digestion 
at  too  rapid  a  rate  is  discussed  elsewhere.  (See  p.  115,  al- 
so p.  377).  Overwork  in  the  young  animal  hinders  develop- 
ment and  correspondingly  hinders  useful  performance. 
Overwork  in  the  mature  animal  lessens  future  usefulness 
and  shortens  the  period  of  the  same. 

Foods  vary  in  adaptation. — Foods  vary  in  their  adap- 
tation not  only  for  animals  of  the  same  class  at  different 
ages,  but  also  for  animals  of  different  classes.  Due  recogni- 
tion must  be  given  to  those  variations  by  those  who  are 
to  make  a  success  of  growing  live  stock.  That  foods  vary 
in  their  adaptation  for  animals  of  the  same  class  at  dif- 
ferent ages  is  self-evident,  but  the  precise  nature  of  the 
adaptation  calls  for  careful  thought  and  forethought,  that  a 
proper  supply  of  each  factor  may  be  on  hand  when  wanted. 


GENERAL     FEEDING  451 

It  is  important,  for  instance,  that  calves  shall  be  given  hay, 
fine  and  well  cured.  Cattle  one  or  two  years  old  may  utilize, 
without  any  loss,  fodders  much  coarser  and  rougher.  To 
have  a  supply  of  such  hay  for  calves,  calls  for  forethought 
in  growing  the  same,  in  cutting  it  at  the  proper  stage  of 
growth,  in  curing  it,  and  in  storing  it  so  as  to  be  accessible 
when  wanted.  The  same  is  true  of  food  provision  in  other 
lines. 

The  variations  in  foods  for  the  different  classes  of  live 
stock  are  much  greater  than  for  those  of  the  same  class. 
They  are :  ( I )  Such  as  grow  out  of  the  necessities  arising 
from  original  bestowment;  (2)  such  as  relate  to  digestive 
peculiarities  and  the  needs  growing  out  of  these,  and  (3) 
those  which  are  at  least  measurably  qualified  by  the  nature 
of  the  production  required.  These  are  additional  to  varia- 
tions called  for  by  variations  in  age. 

Nature  made  the  ox  graminivorous,  hence,  grasses  and 
grains  are  the  proper  food  of  cattle.  Likewise  it  made  the 
pig  omnivorous,  hence,  swine  may  properly  be  given  a  much 
wider  range  of  foods  than  would  be  suitable  for  cattle.  Ani- 
mal food  may  be  fed  with  advantage  betimes  to  calves  in 
the  form  of  blood  meal,  but  flesh  is  so  foreign  to  the  needs 
of  cattle  that  it  is  ill-adapted  to  supplying  these.  Not  so, 
however,  is  it  in  regard  to  swine.  Tankage  has  proved 
a  profitable  food  for  swine,  and  it  is  possible  to  maintain 
them  on  the  offal  of  slaughter-houses  alone.  Nature  has 
made  the  sheep  dainty  as  to  the  condition  in  which  food 
is  given  to  it,  hence,  unless  good  in  quality,  it  will  reject  it, 
except  under  the  pressure  of  hunger.  On  the  other  hand, 
swine  will  consume  offal  to  such  an  extent  that  they  may 
be  regarded  as  scavengers. 

The  greater  relative  ability  of  cattle  and  sheep  to  di- 
gest bulky  foods  as  compared  with  horses,  and  especially 
with  swine,  is  discussed  elsewhere,  (see  p.  456).  Experience 
has  shown  that  meal  is  best  administered  to  cattle  in  the 
dry  form,  but  to  swine  after  having  been  soaked.  It  should 


452  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

be  given  to  swine  directly  and  without  admixture,  where- 
as for  cattle,  it  is  deemed  preferable  to  mix  it  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  more  bulky  food.  Nearly  all  kinds  of  grain 
are  ground  before  being  fed  to  cattle,  a  process  of  prepara- 
tion not  deemed  necessary  when  feeding  them  to  sheep. 

The  kind  of  production  called  for  has  a  powerful  in- 
fluence in  determining  how  foods  may  best  be  used.  Tim- 
othy hay,  for  instance,  has  high  adaptation  for  feeding 
horses,  since  it  is  well  adapted  to  furnishing  heat  and 
energy,  and  is  not  so  laxative  as  alfalfa  and  some  other 
foods.  As  a  fodder  for  horses,  it  is  considered  inferior  to 
clover.  For  cows  it  is  not  considered  equal  to  clover,  and 
for  sheep  its  adaptation  is  considerably  lower,  especially 
if  coarse  and  harvested  late.  Succulent  food  such  as  soil- 
ing foods,  corn  silage  and  field  roots,  are  admirable  for  milk 
production,  also  young  grass,  whereas  to  give  the  same  in 
large  quantity  to  horses  when  hard  at  work  would  be  very 
unwise.  In  furnishing  pasture  such  adaptation  should  also 
be  studied.  The  rape  plant,  for  instance,  is  probably  with- 
out a  rival  in  its  adaptation  in  providing  pasture  for  sheep, 
whereas,  it  is  ill-suited  to  providing  pasture  for  horses  at 
work.  The  importance  of  using  foods  in  the  best  line  of 
their  adaptation  cannot  be  easily  over  estimated. 

Foods  that  influence  digestion  favorably. — (i)  Some 
foods  in  addition  to  the  sustenance  which  they  furnish,  ex- 
ercise an  influence  on  digestion  so  salutary  as  to  place 
their  value  as  foods  far  away  above  what  is  represented  by 
the  nutrients  which  they  contain  and  the  digestibility  of 
the  same;  (2)  the  influence  thus  exerted  tends  to  correct 
the  harmful  results  that  grow  out  of  constipation  or  un- 
due laxness  of  the  bowels,  according  to  the  kind  of  food; 
(3)  because  of  this,  when  used  mainly  to  give  proper  tone 
to  the  digestion,  the  real  value  of  such  foods  is  usually  far 
above  their  market  value;  (4)  when  fed  mainly  for  such  a 
use,  small  and  moderate  rather  than  large  quantities  should 
be  fed. 


GENERAL      FEEDING  453 

The  list  of  these  foods  includes  all  kinds  of  field  roots, 
as  turnips,  rutabagas,  mangels,  sugar  beets,  carrots,  and 
parsnips.  It  also  includes  such  by-products  as  wheat  bran, 
oil  cake  of  various  kinds;  such  fodders  as  alfalfa  and 
clover ;  such  green  foods  as  grass  and  rape ;  grass  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  maturity  and  condiments  of  a  salutary 
character,  as  salt  and  mixtures  that  act  as  a  tonic  when  fed. 

\11  kinds  of  field  roots,  bran  and  oil  cake  have  a 
tendency  to  relieve  constipation  and  are  possessed  of  high- 
est value  when  fed  with  dry  food,  as  straw  for  instance, 
in  winter.  The  real  value  of  these  foods  fed  to  animals 
on  succulent  pastures  would  therefore  be  much  less  than 
the  value  when  fed  with  foods  that  tend  to  constipate.  Al- 
falfa and  clovers  tend  to  correct  digestion  according  as 
they  are  fed.  When  fed  along  with  a  food  too  constipating, 
they  exercise  some  influence  in  correcting  such  a  condition, 
but  when  fed  along  with  green  food  such  as  tends  to 
produce  scouring,  the  effect  is  the  opposite.  Grass,  rape 
and  also  alfalfa  and  clovers  fed  in  the  green  form  in  suit- 
able quantities  all  tend  to  counteract  constipation,  but  grass 
more  or  less  matured,  on  the  other  hand,  tends  to  correct 
scouring.  Salt,  though  not  a  food  at  all  in  the  sense  of 
furnishing  nutrients,  exercises,  nevertheless,  a  salutary  in- 
fluence on  digestion  when  fed  in  due  proportion^  (see 
p.  521).  And  the  condiments  referred  to  tend  to  stimulate 
the  digestive  organs  to  increased  action  (see  p.  469). 

The  real  value  of  such  foods  will  vary  in  proportion 
to  the  extent  to  which  they  tend  to  correct  digestion.  When 
the  necessity  for  such  a  correction  is  not  present,  the  nu- 
trients which  they  possess  and  the  digestibility  of  the  same 
is  the  true  measure  of  their  value.  Because  of  this,  the 
aim  should  be  to  feed  them  in  a  way  that  will  add  to  their 
value.  Field  roots,  for  instance,  may  be  fed  to  the  extent 
of  being  a  chief  source  of  nutrition,  but  when  so  fed  they 
will  probably  prove  relatively  an  expensive  food,  whereas 
if  they  were  fed  in  limited  quantity  as  a  corrective  to  di- 
gestion, they  would  be  found  relatively  a  very  cheap  food. 


454  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  wisdom,  therefore,  of  feeding  foods  when  thus 
used  in  moderate  quantities  will  be  apparent.  The  amounts 
required  will  of  course  vary  with  the  necessities  which  each 
individual  instance  gives  rise  to,  hence  no  hard  and  fast 
rules  can  be  formulated  in  regard  to  feeding  them,  it 
would  seem  approximately  correct  to  say,  however,  that 
from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  amount  fed  on  the 
basis  of  the  nutrients  contained,  will  usually  effect  the 
end  sought.  To  illustrate:  Should  a  dairy  cow  be  fed  8 
pounds  of  bran  when  bran  is  fed  alone  as  the  meal  portion, 
from  2  to  3  pounds  along  with  other  meal  would  act  as 
a  regulator  of  digestion. 

When  to  feed  concentrates. — Nutrients  in  tne  form 
of  concentrates  are  usually  more  costly  than  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  the  same  in  the  form  of  roughage.  The  supply  of 
the  latter  is  also  generally  more  abundant  on  the  farm 
than  the  supply  of  the  former.  Because  of  this,  practical 
growers  of  live  stock  have  erred  in  the  extent  to  which 
they  have  fed  roughage  and  withheld  concentrates.  This 
is  especially  true  in  corn-growing  areas  where  much  of 
the  fodder  grown  is  never  reaped,  and  in  grain-growing 
areas  where  much  of  the  straw  grown  is  still  burned.  It 
is  important,  therefore,  to  know  when  to  feed  concentrates 
and  when  to  withhold  them. 

It  will  always  be  in  order  to  feed  grain :  ( I )  To  foals 
that  are  nursing  and  especially  at,  and  subsequent  to  the 
weaning  period;  (2)  to  dams  that  suckle  them  when  not 
on  pasture,  plentiful  and  succulent  and  (3)  to  horses  when 
at  work.  If  the  pastures  are  particularly  good,  nursing 
foals  may  do  without  grain  without  detriment,  till  toward 
the  weaning  season,  but  grain  fed  to  them  would  not  in 
any  sense  be  wasted.  With  good  protein  fodders  and  corn 
ensilage  in  winter,  nursing  dams  may  require  but  little 
grain.  The  amount  required  by  horses  at  work  is  gauged 
chiefly  by  the  character  and  amount  of  the  work  done.  It 
will  usually  be  in  order  to  feed  a  limited  amount  of  grain 
to  foals  that  are  growing  in  the  winter  season,  more  es- 


GENERAL     FEEDING  455 

pecially  during  the  first  winter.  •  The  amount  called  for  will 
depend  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  roughage  fed,  but 
the  necessity  for  feeding  more  than  2  to  4  pounds  per 
animal  seldom  exists.  As  a  rule  mature  horses  that  are 
idle  do  not  require  grain  until  within  a  few  weeks  of  the 
time  labor  begins. 

It  will  in  nearly  all  instances  be  found  profitable  to 
feed  concentrates  to  cattle  under  the  following  conditions: 
(i)  To  calves  that  are  being  reared  on  skim  milk  and  to 
all  calves  from  the  weaning  period  onward  for  a  time;  (2) 
to  young  animals  that  are  being  grown  to  furnish  baby 
beef  (see  p.  402) ;  (3)  to  cattle  that  are  being  fattened 
under  all  conditions  of  fattening;  (4)  to  cows  in  milk 
during  the  entire  period  of  lactation.  A  liberal  supply  will 
be  in  order  for  calves  grown  on  skim  milk  (see  p.  404),  and 
those  grown  for  baby  beef  should  be  given  practically  all 
they  will  consume  without  injury.  The  amount  fed  to 
cattle  that  are  being  fattened  may  be  much  reduced  when 
they  are  on  good  grass,  and  possibly  withheld  for  a  time, 
(see  p.  398).  The  necessity  for  feeding  large  amounts 
of  grain  to  cows  in  milk  on  good  pasture  is  still  in  a  way, 
an  open  question  (see  p.  440),  but  it  is  about  cer- 
tain that  to  feed  a  limited  amount  to  cattle  that 
are  being  fattened  and  to  cows  in  milk  will  be  at- 
tended with  some  profit.  It  will  usually  be  profitable  to 
feed  calves  2  or  3  pounds  of  grain  per  animal  per  day  the  first 
winter,  and  also  the  second  winter,  if  they  are  to  be  finished 
on  grass  the  following  summer.  It  may  not  be  profitable 
to  feed  grain  to  young  cattle  after  the  first  winter  where  the 
grazing  is  abundant.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  feed 
it  to  heifers  intended  for  the  dairy,  except  for  a  time,  sub- 
sequently to  weaning.  Nor  is  it  usually  necessary  to  feed 
grain  to  cows  not  in  milk. 

Sheep  will  profit  from  being  given  concentrates  under 
the  following  conditions :  ( I )  It  will  always  be  in  order  to 
feed  grain  to  lambs  before  the  season  of  grazing  and  subse- 
quently if  they  are  to  be  sold  as  milk  lambs ;  (2)  to  lambs  for 


456  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

a  time  subsequently  to  the  weaning  period  under  arable  con- 
ditions, unless  they  can  be  provided  with  rich  pasture  such  as 
rape  furnishes ;  (3)  to  pregnant  ewes  when  in  the  yards  and 
also  after  parturition  and  (4)  to  sheep  and  lambs  that  are 
being  fattened  except  when  grazed  on  rape.  Milk  lambs 
may  be  given  all  they  will  consume,  and  pregnant  ewes  a 
small  allowance  before  lambing,  but  liberal  feeding  subse- 
quently. Whether  grain  will  be  profitable  if  fed  to  sheep 
and  lambs  that  are  being  fattened  on  rape,  will  depend 
upon  such  conditions  as  relative  values.  Shearling  ewes  do 
not  usually  require  grain  winter  or  summer,  nor  do  breed- 
ing ewes  ordinarily  need  it  when  on  good  pasture. 

It  will  be  found  profitable  to  feed  grain  to  swine  at  all 
times,  with  one  exception.  The  exception  is  that  of  ma- 
ture, brood  sows  on  good  pastures,  when  only  one  litter  is 
required  of  them  each  year.  Young  pigs  that  are  nursing 
and  for  some  weeks  subsequently  should  be  given  all  the 
grain  that  they  will  take.  Later  when  on  good  pasture, 
about  half  the  normal  grain  ration  that  would  be  necessary 
Were  they  confined  will  suffice.  During  the  fattening  pe- 
riod, they  should  be  given  all  they  will  consume  with  a 
relish. 

Proportion  of  concentrates  to  roughage. — In  dis- 
cussing this  question  it  may  certainly  be  assumed:  (i) 
That  roughage  has  a  mission  in  addition  to  furnishing 
nutriment  to  animals;  viz.,  the  proper  distension  and  en- 
largement of  the  digestive  organs  in  all  animals,  especially 
ruminants;  (2)  that  roughage  is  more  plentiful  relatively 
than  concentrates  and  because  more  plentiful  it  furnishes 
nutrients  relatively  more  cheaply  than  grain  and  (3)  that 
because  of  the  above  the  aim  should  be  to  utilize  roughage  to 
the  greatest  extent  consistent  with  highest  profit  in  the 
live  stock  so  fed. 

The  necessity  for  feeding  roughage  to  horses,  cattle, 
sheep  and  swine  is  based  on  the  need  for  proper  distension 
of  the  digestive  organs  to  enable  animals  to  consume  larger 
quantities  of  food  than  would  otherwise  be  utilized.  The 


GENERAL      FEEDING  457 

necessity  for  feeding  it  in  relatively  larger  quantities  to 
ruminants  than  to  horses  or  swine  is  indicated  in  the  rela- 
tively greater  capacity  they  have  for  storing  it  and  also 
for  grinding  large  quantites  of  it  in  the  process  of  rumina- 
tion to  prepare  it  for  digestion.  When  young  animals  are 
given  too  large  a  proportion  relatively  of  concentrates  dur- 
ing the  growing  period,  for  want  of  sufficient  distension  in 
the  digestive  organs,  they  are  unable  to  take  sufficiently 
large  quantities  of  food  and  especially  of  roughage,  com- 
patible with  highest  production.  This  is  evidenced  in  the 
want  of  largest  attainable  growth,  even  in  swine  that  are 
reared  entirely  on  a  concentrated  grain  ration  in  addition  to 
the  food  furnished  by  the  dam  during  the  nursing  period. 
Such  distension  is  of  highest  relative  importance  in  the 
dairy  cow,  because  of  the  necessity  that  requires  her  to 
consume  relatively  large  quantities  of  food  in  proportion 
to  her  weight  to  properly  sustain  the  milk  flow.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  sustain  ruminants  that  are  mature  for  considerable 
period?  without  apparent  injury,  as  was  shown  several 
years  ago  in  the  experiment  of  Mr.  Linus  W.  Miller  of 
New  York,  who  successfully  wintered  during  several  sea- 
sons dry  dairy  cows  on  a  ration  of  corn  meal  and  water. 
But  that  such  feeding  is  practical  is  of  but  little  economic 
importance,  because  of  the  greater  cheapness  relatively 
of  roughage. 

The  greater  plentifulness  and  subsequently  greater 
relative  cheapness  of  roughage  arises,  first  from  the  fact 
that  large  quantities  are  furnished  along  with  grain  when 
growing  the  latter;  second,  large  quantities  may  be  grown 
and  cheaply  which  furnish  little  or  no  grain  relatively,  as 
in  the  case  of  corn  fodder  grown  thickly;  and  third,  the 
entire  grass  and  hay  crops  consist  of  roughage  without 
grain,  except  when  grown  to  provide  seed  for  sowing. 
Roughage,  therefore,  will  always  furnish  nutrients  rela- 
tively cheaper  than  concentrates  with  rare  exceptions.  But 
this  is  in  some  degree  offset  by  the  higher  relative  diges- 
tibility of  concentrates. 


458  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  wisdom  of  trying  to  utilize  roughage  to  the  great- 
est extent  practicable  will  be  apparent  from  what  has  been 
said.  It  is  simply  impossible  to  lay  down  rules  that  will 
apply  in  every  case  as  to  the  proportion  of  roughage  and 
concentrates  that  shall  be  fed  respectively.  Much  must  be 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  intelligent  feeder,  but  some 
things  may  be  said  that  should  prove  helpful  to  the  less 
experienced.  These  include  the  following:  (i)  Young- 
animals  including  foals,  calves,  lambs  and  pigs  should  be 
provided  with  all  the  roughage  that  they  will  consume  from 
the  time  when  they  begin  to  feed  upon  it  to  insure  the 
requisite  distension  in  the  digestive  organs;  (2)  to  encour- 
age them  to  take  such  food,  it  should  be  provided  for  them 
superior  in  quality  and  possessed  of  high  palatability ;  (3) 
with  animals  grown  for  future  breeding  or  labor  the  rela- 
tive proportion  of  roughage  to  concentrates  should  increase 
until  they  are  matured;  (4)  the  proportion  of  concentrates 
to  roughage  in  feeding  mature  horses  may  extend  from 
none  at  all  with  idle  horses  to  considerably  more  than  50 
per  cent  in  digestible  nutrients  with  horses  at  hard  labor; 
(5)  the  proportion  with  mature  cattle  that  are  being  fat- 
tened or  with  those  nearing  maturity  may  run  all  the  way 
between  33  and  66  per  cent  according  to  the  character  of  the 
nutrients  in  the  roughage  and  the  duration  of  the  feeding 
period;  (6)  the  proportion  with  cows  in  milk  may  range 
between  33  and  50  per  cent  of  all  the  nutrients,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  roughage  fed,  but  when  on  pasture 
it  may  be  less  than  33  per  .cent  even  to  the  extent  of  not 
feeding  any;  (7)  the  proportion  with  sheep  that  are  being 
fattened  should  range  between  33  and  66  per  cent  of  all 
the  nutrients,  also  based  on  their  character  and  the  duration 
of  the  feeding  period;  (8)  the  proportion  with  swine  be- 
tween weaning  and  fattening  should  be  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  50  to  65  per  cent  of  all  the  nutrients,  and  for  all 
other  swine,  save  breeding  animals  when  not  producing,  it 
should  run  from  75  to  100  per  cent;  (9)  roughage  fed  in 


GENERAL     FEEDING  459 

the  form  of  legumes  of  high  palatability  lessens  the  re- 
quirement in  concentrates  in  proportion  as  the  former  are 
fed;  (10)  this  reduction  may  in  some  instances  be  fully 
50  per  cent,  as  when  cattle  and  sheep  that  are  being  fat- 
tened and  cows  in  milk  are  being  fed  freely  on  high  class 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  figures  submitted 
above  are  to  be  regarded  as  only  approximate.  They  are 
intended  to  be  general  rather  than  specific  guides. 

Changing  foods. — In  discussing  this  question,  it  is  safe 
to  affirm:  (i)  That  any  marked  change  in  the  diet  of 
farm  animals  should  be  made  gradually;  (2)  that  a  change 
from  dry  food  to  pasture  in  the  spring  will  result  in  a  loss 
in  live  weight  if  made  suddenly  and  (3)  that  changing 
from  plentiful  pastures  in  the  autumn  to  dry  feed  will  also 
result  in  lessened  gains  for  a  time,  unless  made  with  great 
care. 

Sudden  changes  in  the  food  given  to  animals  are  to 
be  avoided,  for  the  reason  that  the  digestive  system  has 
in  many  instances  shown  that  it  is  unable  to  accommodate 
itself  at  once  to  such  a  change,  hence  digestive  derangement 
follows,  which  in  all  instances  means  loss.  Such  changes 
sometimes  result  in  scouring,  as  when  animals  are  changed 
suddenly  from  a  dry  to  a  watery  diet,  as  for  instance  from 
winter  to  summer  food,  or  when  large  quantities  of  field 
roots  are  quickly  added  to  the  winter  ration,  also  when 
large  quantities  of  the  tops  of  field  roots  are  added  to  the 
autumn  pastures.  Sometimes  they  induce  constipation,  as 
when  changing  from  autumn  pastures  to  a  diet  without  any 
succulence  in  it.  In  other  instances  they  overtax  the  diges- 
tion so  as  permanently  to  weaken  it,  as  when  animals  unused 
to  grain  are  too  quickly  led  up  to  a  full  feed  of  the  same.  If 
the  change  is  gradually  made,  after  the  lapse  of  a  sufficient 
time,  the  system  can  digest  without  hazard  or  harm,  quanti- 
ties of  the  newly  introduced  food  elements  that  would  as- 
suredly have  produced  serious  digestive  derangement  had 
they  been  given  at  the  first. 


460  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Moreover,  such  changes  affect  the  quality  of  the  milk 
of  dams  to  such  an  extent  as  in  some  instances  to  be  seri- 
ously harmful  to  the  young  which  they  are  nursing.  This 
may  happen  when  the  change  is  made  to  a  diet  that  is  well 
adapted  to  the  production  of  good  milk.  Should  brood 
sows,  for  instance,  be  suddenly  put  on  abundant  clover 
pasture  when  young  and  fresh,  the  danger  is  present  that 
scours  will  affect  the  young  that  they  are  nursing.  It  some- 
times happens  also,  that  when  ewes  nursing  young  lambs 
are  quickly  changed  from  dry  food  to  abundant  pastures, 
the  change  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  and  its  superabun- 
dance lead  to  derangement  in  digestion  so  serious  that 
death  may  follow. 

When  herbivorous  animals  are  changed  suddenly  from 
a  dry  diet  to  one  of  succulent  pastures,  the  change  is  prob- 
ably accompanied  in  all  instances  by  a  loss  of  weight.  This 
results  from  the  lax  condition  of  the  bowels.  This  loss 
may  be  so  serious  as  to  call  for  three  or  four  weeks  grazing 
before  the  weight  is  recovered  that  was  thus  lost.  Even 
though  the  change  is  made  prudently  with  animals  on  a 
full  grain  ration,  the  gains  will  probably  be  lowered  more  or 
less  for  a  time.  Cows  also  will  be  reduced  in  flesh  somewhat, 
notwithstanding  that  the  milk  flow  may  be  greater. 

The  change,  therefore,  should  be  made  from  dry  food 
to  succulent  pastures  very  gradually.  It  is  considered  good 
practice  to  turn  cattle  that  are  being  given  a  full  grain  ra- 
tion out  on  pasture  just  after  the  noon  meal  has  been 
consumed,  and  to  leave  them  on  the  grass  for  not  more 
than  an  hour  the  first  day.  The  period  of  grazing  is  then 
lengthened  each  day,  and  not  less  than  15  days  should  be 
covered  in  making  the  change.  The  grain  ration  is  in  the 
meantime  continued,  and  the  animals  are  encouraged  to 
eat  fodder  suitable  in  kind.  If,  however,  the  fresh  young 
grass  is  mixed  with  dead  grass  uneaten  from  the  previous 
year's  growth,  the  time  occupied  in  making  the  change  may 
be  shortened,  as  the  tendency  to  scouring  will  not  be  so 
marked. 


GENERAL     FEEDING  461 

A  second  method  sometimes  adopted  is  to  turn  the 
animals  onto  the  pasture  so  early  in  the  season  that  they 
cannot  eat  grass  to  excess,  because  it  is  not  present  in 
sufficient  quantities.  This  method  may  be  commendable  in 
some  instances  with  sheep,  which  are  usually  benefited  by 
taking  much  exercise,  but  it  is  not  to  be  commended  in 
the  case  of  cattle,  as  they  injure  the  pasture  by  poaching. 
They  hinder  growth  through  too  early  cropping,  and  the 
over  exercise  taken  by  them  is  adverse  to  increase  in  flesh. 

The  change  from  autumn  pastures  to  dry  food  is  less 
difficult  to  make.  If  the  animals  have  been  given  a  daily 
supplement  of  dry  fodder  on  the  pastures  before  yarding 
them,  the  check  to  increase  should  be  but  little  felt.  A 
constipated  condition  of  the  bowels,  however,  should  be 
guarded  against  by  feeding  some  food,  as  oil  cake  or  field 
roots  in  sufficient  quantity  to  prevent  such  a  result. 

Adjusting  foods  to  the  needs  of  animals. — The  prop- 
er adjusting  of  foods  to  the  needs  of  the  animals  so  that 
they  will  be  fed  with  the  greatest  economy  as  to  the  utiliza- 
tion of  food  and  the  utmost  benefit  to  the  animals,  requires 
much  forethought  and  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  feeder. 
It  calls  for  the  adaptation  of  foods:  (i)  To  animals  of 
different  ages;  (2)  to  those  of  different  classes  and  (3) 
to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  kept. 

With  reference  to  young  animals  during  the  milk  pe- 
riod, in  nearly  all  instances  it  will  be  profitable  to  supple- 
ment the  milk  with  grain  or  meal  that  will  promote  the 
proper  growth  of  bone  and  muscle,  and  to  feed  in  addi- 
tion, unless  in  the  case  of  swine,  fodder,  the  finest  and 
most  palatable  that  can  be  obtained.  Subsequently  to  the 
milk  period  the  grain  ration  should  be  increased  and  the 
quality  of  the  other  food  maintained  for  several  months. 
The  period  between  the  age  of,  say  one  year,  and  maturity 
in  the  case  of  foals  and  cattle,  eight  months  and  maturity  in 
that  of  lambs,  and  three  months  and  maturity  in  the 
case  of  swine,  is  the  period  when  they  can  be  fed  most 
cheaply,  because  of  the  small  amount  of  grain  required 


462  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

relatively  and  of  the  extent  to  which  the  more  coarse  fod- 
ders can  be  fed.  The  only  exception  is  in  the  case  of  ma- 
ture animals  that  are  not  producing.  When  kept  to  that 
age  beyond  which  the  teeth  begin  to  fail,  then  foods  richer 
and  prepared  so  as  to  reduce  the  labor  of  mastication  are 
essential.  It  should  also  be  noted  that,  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  age  only,  the  necessity  for  foods  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matters  gradually  decreases  with  advanc- 
ing age,  hence,  the  nutritive  ratio  widens  proportionately. 

With  reference  to  the  different  classes  of  animals,  it 
may  be  said,  that  cattle  and  sheep  can  profitably  consume 
larger  quantities  of  bulky  foods  relatively  than  horses  and 
swine,  owing  to  the  greater  relative  capacity  they  have  for 
storing  the  same  and  to  the  better  equipment  they  have 
for  thoroughly  masticating  the  food  when  preparing  it  for 
digestion.  The  average  capacity  of  the  stomach  of  the 
horse  has  been  given  as  19  quarts,  of  the  ox  as  266.9,  the 
sheep  24.7  and  the  hog  8.5.  To  some  extent,  however,  this 
is  offset  by  the  greater  relative -intestinal  capacity  of  the 
horse  and  the  hog.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  horses  re- 
quire as  a  rule,  more  concentrated  food  relatively  than  cat- 
tle and  sheep,  and  that  because  swine  are  not  so  well  equipped 
as  horses  for  masticating  coarse  fodders,  they  require 
a  still  larger  proportion  of  concentrated  food. 

With  reference  to  the  various  purposes  for  which  ani- 
mals are  kept  it  may  be  said :  ( I )  That  horses  at  work  call 
for  increased  concentration  in  the  food  fed  with  increase 
in  the  amount  and  severity  of  the  work  done;  (2)  that 
with  cattle,  the  need  for  protein  is  greatest  during  the 
milk  taking  period,  that  the  diet  of  cows  in  milk  must  be 
richer  in  protein  and  possessed  of  more  succulence  than 
that  for  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  and  that  the  food  of 
the  latter  must  be  increasingly  rich  in  the  main  in  fat 
producing  elements  as  the  fattening  process  advances;  (3) 
that  the  same  reasoning  applies  equally  to  sheep  and  swine 
and  (4)  that  while  swine  between  the  weaning  and  fatten- 
ing period  can  utilize  pasture  to  much  advantage  the  food 


GENERAL     FEEDING  463 

should  be  concentrated  and  rich  in  protein  during  the 
former  period,  and  in  carbohydrates  during  the  latter.  It 
may  also  be  added  that  mature  animals  not  producing  re- 
quire but  little  grain,  hence,  the  aim  should  be  to  maintain 
them  on  relatively  cheap  foods. 

Foods  home  grown  or  purchased. — Whether  the 
foods  fed  should  be  entirely  grown  upon  the  farm  or  pur- 
chased in  part  or  in  whole  will  depend  upon  several  con- 
siderations. These  include:  (i)  The  relative  area  of  the 
land  holdings  on  which  foods  may  be  grown;  (2)  the  rela- 
tive values  of  foods;  (3)  the  natural  adaptation  of  the 
country  for  certain  lines  of  production,  and  (4)  the  neces- 
sity for  applying  fertilizers  from  some  outside  source. 

It  is  evident  that  where  the  holdings  are  small,  the 
amount  of  live  stock  kept  cannot  be  large,  unless  foods  are 
purchased  in  addition  to  those  grown.  The  purchase  of  foods 
to  supplement  those  grown  may  in  certain  instances  not 
only  be  necessary  but  also  commendable.  Nevertheless  the 
fact  remains  that  the  profit  from  feeding  home-grown  foods 
should  be  greater  than  from  feeding  those  purchased.  It 
will  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  the  home  value  of  foods 
is  20  per  cent  less  than  the  value  of  the  same  on  the  mar- 
ket. In  other  words,  other  things  being  equal,  a  food  can 
usually  be  grown  for  about  20  per  cent  less  than  it  can  be 
purchased,  hence,  the  advantage  to  the  grower  and  feeder 
of  live  stock  of  being  able  to  grow  all  or  nearly  all  the 
food  which  he  needs.  This  should  be  his  aim  to  the  great- 
est extent  possible,  but  of  course  all  the  food  needed  can- 
not be  grown  on  small  farms  when  they  are  heavily 
stocked. 

The  relative  value  of  foods  exercises  an  important 
qualifying  influence  on  the  amount  and  kinds  that  it  will 
pay  t%o  purchase,  and  also  on  the  conditions  under  which 
they  may  be  fed.  In  some  instances,  as  when  the  prices 
of  food  products  are  low,  when  live  stock  of  suitable  age 
and  at  moderate  prices  for  feeding  can  be  obtained  and 
when  the  demand  for  the  properly  finished  product  rules 


464  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

reasonably  high,  it  may  be  possible  to  buy  both  food  and 
live  stock  and  feed  them  at  a  profit. 

Feeding  sheep  and  cattle  at  stockyards  and  other 
centers  has  been  made  possible  under  the  conditions  named. 
More  commonly  such  feeding  has  centered  at  various  points 
in  the  Mississippi  basin  and  in  proximity  to  the  great  grain 
growing  centers  of  the  central  west  and  northwest.  Sheep 
especially  from  the  western  ranges  have  been  thus  fat- 
tened oftentimes  in  very  large  numbers  and  on  screenings 
taken  out  of  the  grain  and  supplemented.  Fattening  animals 
thus,  of  course,  effects  a  saving  in  labor.  But,  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  influence  which  it  exerts  upon  farm- 
ing in  states  where  it  is  practiced,  it  is  open  to  the  fol- 
lowing objections :  ( I )  It  centers  feeding  at  a  limited  num- 
ber of  points  which  should  be  done  on  the  farm,  because 
of  the  profitable  employment  that  it  would  furnish  to  the 
farmers  on  many  farms  during  the  leisure  season;  (2)  it 
consumes  fodders  and  frequently  grains  drawn  from  the 
farm  which  should  be  fed  on  the  same  for  its  enrichment ; 
(3)  the  fertilizer  made  at  the  various  feeding  centers  is 
usually  in  a  large  degree  wasted. 

In  certain  sections,  it  is  possible  to  grow  one  product 
in  great  abundance  for  a  certain  kind  of  feeding,  while  its 
best  complemental  food  does  not  grow  well  there.  Under 
these  conditions,  it  may  be  profitable  to  buy  that  food  which 
helps  to  balance  the  ration.  In  alfalfa  areas  in  the  western 
valleys,  it  may  pay  well,  under  certain  conditions,  to  buy 
corn  and  other  grain  to  feed  with  the  alfalfa.  In  corn-grow- 
ing areas  where  protein  is  much  wanting,  it  may  pay  well 
to  purchase  some  protein  food  as  bran  or  cottonseed  meal 
to  feed  along  with  the  corn.  In  other  areas  which  may  be 
made  to  grow  corn  ensilage  in  food  form  but  which  produce 
grain  shyly,  it  may  be  well  to  purchase  the  latter  to  add 
to  the  silage  rather  than  to  try  to  grow  them. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  supplement  the  fertilizer  made 
on  the  farm  by  purchasing  fertility,  this  may  sometimes 
be  obtained  more  cheaply  through  foods  purchased  and  fed 


GENERAL     FEEDING  465 

than  through  purchasing  the  fertilizer  directly.  Where 
the  soil  is  low  in  fertility,  this  may  frequently  answer  the 
purpose  much  better  than  the  application  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  since  the  manure  resulting  will  act  as  a  -mulch 
and  also  as  a  fertilizer  when  spread  on  the  surface,  and 
when  buried  it  will  furnish  the  soil  with  .humus  and  also 
with  fertility.  Commercial  fertilizer  only  enriches  the  soil. 
It  does  not  act  as  a  mulch  nor  does  it  supply  humus.  One 
of  the  best  methods  of  enriching  soil  thus  is  by  feeding 
to  sheep  on  pasture  some  supplemental  grain  product,  rich 
in  fertilizing  elements  (see  p.  398).  The  pasture  may  be 
composed  of  grass,  clover  or  other  plants  sown  for  the 
purpose. 

Relative  food  values. — It  has  been  stated  elsewhere 
that  the  aim  should  be  to  grow  the  foods  fed  upon  the 
farm  to  the  greatest  extent  possible  upon  the  same.  (See 
p.  463.)  But  it  frequently  happens  that  foods  need  to  be 
purchased  to  make  it  possible  to  feed  them  in  balance.  It  is 
also  necesary  in  some  instances  to  purchase  them  to  make 
production  profitable  in  the  highest  degree,  because  of  the 
limitations  in  the  variety  of  the  foods  grown  in  the  locality. 
In  such  instances  a  due  regard  should  be  had,  first,  to  the 
relative  values  of  foods,  and  second,  to  their  relative  suit- 
ability for  the  end  sought.  In  yet  other  instances,  because 
of  a  difference  in  the  relative  values  of  foods,  it  may  be 
profitable  to  sell  grains  grown  upon  the  farm  and  purchase 
other  products  to  feed  in  lieu  of  those  sold. 

A  due  regard  must  be  had  to  the  relative  values  of 
foods.  These  vary  with  the  seasons.  In  one  instance,  bar- 
ley may  be  low  in  price  and  corn  relatively  high.  In  an- 
other, the  opposite  may  be  true.  This  may  be  brought 
about  by  some  peculiarity  in  the  weather  during  the  period 
of  growth.  One  season  is  may  be  more  profitable  to  pur- 
chase corn,  another  season,  barley,  and  yet  again  rye.  In 
some  instances,  oil  cake  may  be  freely  purchased  and  fed 
with  profit,  and  yet  again  the  cost  of  this  food  may  put  it 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  feeder.  The  same  is  true  of  other 


466  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

by-products.  In  some  instances  bran  may  be  purchased  and 
fed  with  great  advantage.  In  other  instances  it  would  be 
fed  at  a  loss.  But  because  of  the  favorable  influence  of 
bran  and  oil  cake  and  some  other  products  on  digestion  apart 
from  their  feeding  value,  it  may  be  profitable  to  purchase 
and  feed  them  in  small  quantity  when  the  price  gets  be- 
yond the  value  of  profitable  feeding  based  on  the  nutrients 
which  these  foods  contain. 

The  relative  suitability  of  foods  purchased  to  the  use 
that  is  to  be  made  of  them  should  be  duly  considered  when 
purchases  are  made.  The  cheapest  concentrate  viewed 
from  the  standpoint  of  nutrients  may  not  be  the  cheapest, 
because  it  does  not  contain  the  requisite  nutrients  to  furnish 
a  balanced  ration  along  with  the  other  foods  already  on 
hand  with  which  it  must  be  fed.  In  yet  other  instances, 
the  food  thus  purchased  may  not  be  the  cheapest,  though  it 
is  the  best  balancer  of  the  ration,  because  of  its  relative  ex- 
pense. Another  food  which  does  not  furnish  so  perfect  a 
balance  may  be  cheaper  because  of  its  low  price  or  because 
it  exercises  a  favorable  influence  on  digestion. 

Grains  may  sometimes  be  sold  with  profit  in  order  to 
purchase  other  foods  to  feed  in  their  stead.  The  grower 
for  instance  may  have  an  abundant  supply  of  oats  and  be 
short  of  corn  for  feeding.  Oats  may  be  relatively  high  and 
corn  relatively  cheap.  In  such  instances  profit  may  result 
from  selling  oats  and  buying  corn,  rather  than  from  feed- 
ing oats  without  corn.  Another  who  is  a  swine  grower 
may  have  an  abundant  supply  of  both  corn  and  oats.  Since 
neither  of  these  fed  alone  is  suitable  for  young  pigs  as 
the  sole  ration,  and  since  the  same  is  true  of  them  when 
fed  in  conjunction,  it  will  usually  be  profitable  to  sell  a 
certain  amount  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  grains  and  to 
purchase  wheat  middlings  to  be  fed  in  its  stead.  That,  of 
course,  should  be  sold  which  will  bring  the  best  price.  But 
when  these  exchanges,  so  to  speak,  are  made,  a  due  regard 
must  be  had  to  the  cost  of  transportation  of  the  food  sold 
and  also  of  that  purchased. 


GENERAL     FEEDING  467 

Sustaining  power  of  pastures. — The  sustaining  power 
of  pastures  is  a  question  of  much  moment  to  the  stock- 
man. With  reference  thereto  it  may  be  said:  (i)  That 
it  will  be  found  to  vary  greatly  with  varying  conditions; 
(2)  that  under  average  conditions,  it  may  usually  be  greatly 
increased  and  (3)  that  the  effort  to  increase  the  carrying 
power  of  pastures  in  this  country  has  seldom  been  given 
that  attention  which  its  importance  demands. 

The  sustaining  power  of  grazing  lands  will  vary  with 
climatic  and  soil  conditions,  with  the  grasses  that  grow 
on  them,  with  the  method  of  grazing  and  with  the  fertiliza- 
tion bestowed.  The  sustaining  power  of  the  best  grazing 
lands  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  has  apparently  not 
been  tested  in  a  systematic  way.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
from  10  to  30  acres  of  land  comprised  in  the  western  ranges 
are  required  to  graze  a  mature  cattle  beast  through  all 
the  season,  practically  through  all  the  year.  In  striking 
contrast  is  the  statement  of  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  to  the  effect 
that  in  a  certain  pasture  in  Leicestershire,  England,  which 
comprised  14  acres,  17  oxen  were  grazed  throughout  the 
entire  season  and  that  from  500  to  600  pounds  of  increase 
was  secured  from  each  acre.  The  averge  fertility  of  the 
range  lands  referred  to  is  probably  greater  than  that  of  the 
Leicestershire  grazing  lands,  the  difference  in  the  outcome 
being  caused  mainly  by  lack  of  rainfall.  In  support  of  this 
statement  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  Prof  R.  S.  Shaw  se- 
cured 904.8  pounds  of  increase  per  acre  in  one  season  at  the 
Montana  experiment  station,  from  grazing  young  cattle  on 
alsike  clover  pasture  subject  to  irrigation. 

A  mixture  of  grasses  will  usually  produce  the  largest 
amount  of  pasture,  since  these  grow  more  or  less  at  dif- 
ferent seasons  and  they  usually  occupy  the  ground  more 
fully  than  one  variety.  Such  pastures,  however,  should  be 
permanent  in  character,  and  they  should  only  be  made  on 
soils  good  and  naturally  moist,  and  in  localities  favored 
with  occasional  rains  during  the  period  of  growth,  because 
of  the  expense  and  time  required  to  secure  them. 


468  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

The  method  of  grazing  exercises  a  most  important  in- 
fluence on  the  production  of  pastures.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  pastures  essentially  composed  of  blue  grass.  In 
practice  they  are  usually  eaten  too  bare.  When  not  cropped 
too  closely,  the  covering  of  grass  tends  to-  shield  the  ground 
from  the  evaporating  rays  of  the  sun  in  summer,  and  from 
the  severe  freezing  of  the  roots  in  winter.  By  prudent 
grazing,  the  sustaining  power  of  pastures  may  certainly  be 
considerably  increased,  but  the  author  has  not  been  able 
to  find  figures  bearing  on  such  increase. 

Nor  can  data  be  found  based  on  American  experience 
to  show  the  increase  that  may  be  obtained  in  pastures  from 
suitable  fertilization.  Reasoning  from  analogy,  however, 
it  would  seem  correct  to  assume  that  the  fertilization  of 
pastures  would  increase  production  relatively  as  much  as  it 
increases  the  production  of  meadows  in  the  same  locality 
similarly  treated.  In  many  instances,  the  production  of 
New  England  meadows  has  been  increased  two-and  three- 
fold, by  dressing  them  annually  with  compost,  farmyard 
manure  or  commercial  fertilizers,  or  with  two  of  these  or 
all  three  combined. 

The  prevailing  pasture  on  arable  farms  in  the  northern 
and  central  states  is  blue  grass,  in  the  southern  states, 
Bermuda  grass,  and  in  the  Canadian  Northwest,  Russian 
brome.  The  claim  has  been  made  for  all  these,  that  in  some 
instances  one  acre  has  been  found  capable  of  sustaining  a 
cattle  beast  between  the  ages  of  one  and  three  years  dur- 
ing the  period  of  grazing,  that  is  for,  say  six  months.  This 
would  mean  that  one  acre  of  such  grass  would  furnish 
from  300  to  400  pounds  of  increase.  Usually,  however, 
it  would  seem  correct  to  say,  that  from  two  to  three  acres 
are  required  to  carry  one  such  animal  through  the  season. 
One  average  acre  of  well-grown  rape  will  produce  from 
200  to  250  pounds  of  mutton.  One  acre  of  irrigated  alfalfa 
with  a  suitable  grain  supplement  will  make  from  say  600  to 
900  pounds  of  pork  in  a  single  season,  to  be  credited  to 
the  alfalfa. 


GENERAL     FEEDING  469 

It  would  probably  be  safe  to  affirm  that  under  average 
conditions  on  arable  farms,  the  sustaining  power  of  pastures 
could  be  doubled,  and  that  this  would  be  possible  of  ac- 
complishment in  a  way  that  would  add  much  to  the  revenue 
accruing.  Securing  meat  through  pasture  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  eliminates  costly  labor. 

The  little  attention  that  has  been  given  to  increasing 
the  sustaining  power  of  pastures  has  doubtless  arisen  in  a 
measure  from  the  extensive  character  of  the  farming.  Along 
with  the  advent  of  intensive  farming,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  improvement  of  pastures  will  be  given  that 
increased  attention  of  which  its  importance  is  deserving. 

Condimental  foods. — Condimental  foods  are  certain 
preparations  added  to  the  usual  food  ration  for  longer  or 
shorter  periods.  They  are  mixed  with  some  kind  of 
meal  as  a  basis  and  certain  ingredients  added.  Some  of  the 
latter  are  of  the  nature  of  spices,  some  possess  medicinal 
properties  and  yet  others  possess  both.  Of  the  first  class 
is  ginger;  of  the  second,  gentian,  and  of  the  third,  anise. 
They  are  thus  blended  and  fed  usually  with  concentrated 
food  to  increase  the  relish  for  the  food  and  to  tone  up  the 
system.  As  put  upon  the  market  they  are  proprietary,  and 
are  generally  sold  as  "Foods"  or  "Stock  Food,"  with  some 
distinguishing  name  prefixed  to  indicate  the  ownership.  In 
many  instances,  the  claims  made  for  them  are  extravagant, 
and  they  are  frequently  sold  at  a  price  unreasonably  and  un- 
necessarily high. 

The  foods  moie  commonly  used  as  the  basis  of  the 
mixture  are  corn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  oil  meal  and 
locust  bean,  but  other  kinds  of  meal  are  also  used,  alone  or 
mixed.  The  ingredients  added  more  commonly  include 
several  of  the  following;  viz.,  gentian,  fenugreek,  ginger 
caraway,  anise,  cumin,  saltpeter,  common  salt,  charcoal, 
and  sulphur.  Sometimes  they  include  others  of  a  similar 
class.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  use  some  common  food 
as  a  base,  otherwise  the  mixture  would  have  so  little  bulk 
that  it  would  not  be  practical  to  spread  it  over  prepared 


47O  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

food  or  to  mix  it  with  the  same  in  order  to  improve  its 
palatability.  As  the  amount  fed  is  usually  not  more  than 
a  tablespoonful  at  one  time,  and  in  some  instances  it  is 
less,  the  necessity  for  such  blending  will  be  apparent. 

At  the  present  time,  it  is  popular  to  write  and  speak 
against  the  use  of  such  foods.  The  more  vehement  char- 
acterize them  as  absolute  frauds.  The  more  temperate 
argue  that  when  animals  are  in  health  and  provided  with 
good  wholesome  food,  condiments  are  not  needed,  and 
that  since  wholesome  food  is  always  accessible,  they  are 
never  needed.  As  a  result  of  various  experiments  con- 
ducted to  test  their  worth,  the  conclusion  has  been  reached 
in  some  instances,  that  they  are  practically  valueless,  and 
in  nearly  all  instances  that  to  feed  them  is  unprofitable. 
In  the  judgment  of  the  author,  all  three  classes  have  erred 
in  the  conclusions  reached.  To  grant  the  correctness  of 
the  first  view  would  be  to  assume  that  no  honest  person 
could  engage  in  compounding  them,  a  conclusion  that  is 
not  tenable  as  some  of  these  foods  have  merit  for  certain 
lines  of  feeding  as  is  shown  below.  To  grant  the  correct- 
ness of  the  second  view,  would  imply  by  parity  of  reasoning 
that  foods  are  always  good,  that  animals  are  always  healthy, 
and  that  when  members  of  the  human  family  are  ailing, 
they  should  use  no  stimulant  or  tonic  to  promote  recovery. 
To  grant  the  correctness  of  the  third  view  would  be  sub- 
stantially to  sustain  the  correctness  of  the  first  and  second 
views. 

The  author  believes  that  these  so-called  foods  as  a 
rule  contain  ingredients  that  are  seldom,  if  ever  harmful, 
when  judiciously  fed  to  animals,  and  that  on  the  other  hand, 
they  may  be  so  fed  that  they  will  be  helpful  and  in  some 
instances  profitable,  dependent  on  the  conditions  that  at- 
tend the  feeding.  They  are  appetizing,  stimulating,  and  act 
as  tonics,  consequently,  they  should  not  be  fed  when  animals 
are  in  good  health.  But  when  domestic  animals  are  ailing, 
or  unthrifty,  a  suitable  condiment  given  to  them  for  a  time 
will  frequently  aid  in  restoring  normal  conditions.  Some 


GENERAL     FEEDING  471 

of  these  foods  fed  for  a  short  time  may  prove  very  helpful 
in  fitting  yard  horses  for  spring  work,  in  stimulating  the 
milk  flow  in  a  cow  whose  stomach  is  out  of  tone,  and  in 
toning  up  the  digestion  of  cattle  and  other  animals  near 
the  finishing  period,  when  it  has  become  deranged  through 
over-heavy  feeding.  No  sooner,  however,  is  the  object  ac- 
complished, than  all  such  feeding  should  cease.  Tonics 
long  continued  cease  to  be  operative  both  in  men  and  lower 
animals. 

The  findings  of  the  experiment  stations  would  seem 
to  be  based  on  the  untenable  view  that  they  are  foods, 
and  they  have  so  been  fed  to  animals  in  good  health.  The 
idea  of  feeding  them  as  foods  is  far  from  correct,  as  the 
amount  of  nutriment  which  one  feed  contains  is  not  worth 
mentioning.  But  those  who  compound  them  have  no  right 
to  complain,  as  they  usually  speak  of  them  as  foods. 

Nearly  all  feeders  of  long  experience  use  more  or  less 
of  such  ingredients,  but  not  necessarily  in  the  proprietary 
form.  More  frequently  probably  they  buy  two  or  three 
of  the  more  important  ingredients  and  compound  them  at 
home.  Such  preparations  should  cost  less  than  proprietary 
foods,  but  the  makers  of  the  latter  have  a  very  great  ad- 
vantage in  the  opportunity  they  have  to  purchase  wholesale. 
In  any  event  it  would  seem  that  such  foods  should  yield  a 
reasonable  profit  to  the  owner  when  sold  in  large  lots  at 
not  more  than  5  cents  per  pound.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
use  more  than  a  few  pounds  of  the  costlier  ingredients  to 
make  100  pounds  of  the  mixture. 

The  place  for  self-feeders. — Self-feeders  have  been 
used  in  feeding  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  but  more  com- 
monly they  are  used  in  feeding  sheep.  They  are  simply 
covered  boxes  of  any  desired  length  and  width,  but  wider 
at  the  eaves  than  at  the  base.  They  are  supported  by  legs 
or  frames  and  may  be  stationary  or  movable.  They  have 
troughs  along  one  or  both  sides  as  desired,  the  bottom  of 
the  trough  being  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and 


472  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

of  suitable  height  to  allow  the  animals  to  eat  without  dis- 
comfort. The  food  comes  into  the  troughs  as  fast  as 
eaten,  through  an  opening  along  the  side,  and  just  above 
the  bottom  of  the  box.  Cattle  are  frequently  fed  in  flat 
boxes  with  low  sides,  the  meal  or  corn  being  replenished 
to  the  extent  of  always  keeping  food  before  them. 

It  has  been  found  practicable  to  fatten  live  stock  when 
fed  thus,  with  results  that  have  been,  at  least,  fairly  but 
not  eminently  satisfactory.  It  has  been  practiced  more 
commonly  at  feeding  centers,  where  animals  are  fattened  in 
a  wholesale  way,  and  to  a  far  greater  extent  with  sheep  and 
lambs  than  with  any  other  class  of  live  stock.  The  chief 
object  sought  is  to  save  labor.  The  roughage  fed  in  such 
instances  is  also  replenished  in  suitable  racks,  so  that  it 
also  is  constantly  before  the  animals. 

To  this  method  of  feeding  there  are  the  following  ob- 
jections: (i)  Animals  may  not  be  fed  thus  with  safety 
until  that  time  is  reached  when  they  are  on  full  feed,  that 
is  on  a  full  allowance  of  grain.  To  feed  them  in  this  way 
at  the  beginning  would  disturb  digestion  to  their  serious 
detriment  (see  p.  377).  This  period  of  preliminary  feed- 
ing usually  covers  several  weeks,  in  some  instances  one- 
third  of  the  entire  finishing  period.  (2)  It  is  less  economical 
of  food.  Animals  fed  thus  will  live  chiefly  on  concentrates, 
and  just  to  the  extent  that  they  do,  they  consume  a  less 
amount  of  roughage,  which  in  nearly  all  instances,  furnishes 
nutrients  more  cheaply  than  is  furnished  by  concentrates. 
In  areas  where  concentrates  are  relatively  high  and  rough- 
age cheap,  as  is  usually  the  case  where  alfalfa  grows  at 
its  best,  such  feed  would  add  materially  to  the  cost  of 
increase.  (3)  The  increase  made  is  not  usually  quite  so 
satisfactory  as  from  the  other  system  of  feeding.  Such 
has  been  the  trend  of  the  results  of  trials  at  the  ex- 
periment stations.  While  taking  the  food,  the  animals 
breathe  on  more  or  less  of  the  unconsumed  portion,  which 
makes  it  less  appetizing  for  them  and  leads  to  decreased 
consumption.  (4)  Digestive  troubles  are  less  frequent  when 


GENERAL     FEEDING  473 

the  food  is  proportioned  out  from  meal  to  meal,  and  in 
quantity  just  sufficient  to  keep  the  appetite  in  tone.  In 
this  way  surfeiting  is  prevented.  The  author  found  when 
feeding  sheep  at  the  Minnesota  station,  by  the  two  systems, 
digestive  troubles  were  much  less  frequent  with  the  ani- 
mals on  a  limited  grain  ration. 

While  it  is  quite  practicable  to  fatten  animals  on  unlim- 
ited feed,  from  what  has  been  said  above,  it  would  seem 
undesirable  to  follow  this  method  on  the  arable  farm  or 
western  ranches,  where  alfalfa  grows  abundantly.  Where 
animals  and  more  especially  sheep  are  congregated  at  feed- 
ing centers,  and  where  screenings  of  grain  are  used  as  the 
"hief  concentrate  in  fattening,  it  may  be  the  cheaper  method. 
Finishing  on  the  farm,  however,  is  to  be  encouraged 
rather  than  at  feeding  centers,  because  of  the  favorable  in- 
fluence which  it  exerts  on  fertility,  and  also  for  other 
reasons,  as  furnishing  employment  in  winter  that  should 
prove  profitable,  and  utilizing  coarse  foods  that  may  other- 
wise be  to  some  extent  wasted. 

Relative  profits  from  domestic  animals. — The  rela- 
tive profit  from  producing  milk,  beef,  mutton  and  pork 
has  been  discussed,  and  frequently  to  but  little  purpose. 
With  reference  to  economy  in  production  the  following- 
conclusions  will  be  found  correct :  ( I )  Judged  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  return  in  nutrients  for  food  consumed,  the 
cow  is  the  most  economical  producer  of  food  for  man,  but 
(2)  the  relative  profit  in  producing  milk  or  meat  is  in  a 
marked  degree  the  outcome  of  conditions,  hence  (3)  un- 
der some  conditions,,  the  time  is  never  likely  to  come  when 
milk,  beef,  mutton,  or  pork  cannot  be  produced  at  the 
greatest  profit. 

That  the  cow  is  a  more  economical  producer  of  food 
•  or  man,  than  the  steer,  the  sheep  or  the  pig,  cannot  be 
questioned,  if  considered  only  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
nutrients  consumed  in  producing  the  same.  Lawes  and 
Gilbert  have  shown  that  in  the  milk  of  a  cow  giving  10 
quarts  of  milk  daily,  there  are  6.6  pounds  of  nitrogenous 


474  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

substance,  6.33  pounds  of  fat  and  1.35  pounds  of  mineral 
matter  produced  in  one  week,  whereas  during  a  similar 
period  a  steer  gaining  21-7  pounds  daily  will  produce 
1.13  pounds  nitrogenous  substance,  9.53  pounds  of  fat 
and  0.22  pound  of  mineral  matter.  The  cow  also  pro- 
duces 8.32  pounds  of  milk  sugar  for  which  there 
is  no  equivalent  in  the  ox.  The  ox  will  call  for  as 
much  food  as  the  cow,  if  not  indeed  more,  while  thus 
producing.  The  showing  made  is  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
greater  economy  in  production  from  the  cow. 

It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  comparison  re- 
lates to  production  from  mature  animals,  which  is,  so  far, 
against  meat  production.  Meat  is  usually  produced  much 
more  economically  by  the  cattle  beast  not  yet  mature.  It 
makes  no  allowance  for  maintenance  while  the  cow  is  dry, 
which  usually  covers  from  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of  the 
year.  Nor  does  it  consider  the  items  of  labor,  which  is 
greater  in  the  case  of  milk  production.  The  necessity  also 
for  meat  in  the  human  dietary,  will  make  its  production 
imperative  in  progressive  communities. 

That  conditions  largely  govern  profits  in  milk  and  meat 
production  cannot  be  gainsaid.  Under  range  conditions, 
meat  is  produced  at  a  very  low  cost,  whereas,  in  the  very 
nature  of  things,  milk  cannot  be  produced  at  all  under  the 
same  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  nutrients  can  cer- 
tainly be  produced  more  cheaply  in  the  form  of  milk  under 
intensive  conditions,  but  even  under  these,  much  coarse 
food  can  be  made  into  meat,  not  well  suited  to  making 
milk. 

That  the  time  will  never  come  when  producing  beef, 
mutton  or  pork  under  all  conditions  will  be  less  profitable 
than  producing  the  other  classes  of  meat,  or  less  economi- 
cal, will  be  evident  to  the  reflecting  mind.  A  small  flock  of 
sheep,  for  instance,  can  be  kept  during  the  grazing  season 
on  the  average  farm  on  the  food  grown  in  by-places.  This 
food  in  the  absence  of  sheep  would  probably  be  wasted. 
The  nutrients  in  mutton  thus  grown  are  furnished  more 


GENERAL     FEEDING  475 

cheaply  than  they  could  be  furnished  in  the  milk  of  dairy 
cows  kept  on  the  same  farm.  Again,  suppose  swine  are 
grown  largely  on  alfalfa  pasture  and  fattened  on  peas  which 
they  harvest  in  the  field,  while  being  fattened,  food  nutri- 
ents will  doubtless  be  furnished  more  cheaply  in  the  pork 
thus  made,  than  they  could  be  furnished  by  harvesting  the 
food  and  feeding  it  to  other  animals.  It  is  not  wise  to  con- 
clude, therefore,  that  because  as  stated  by  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert, a  mature  cattle  beast  calls  for  12  to  13  pounds  of 
dry  matter  to  make  a  pound  of  increase,  and  mature  sheep 
call  for  but  8  to  9  pounds  to  make  the  same,  growing  mut- 
ton is  under  all  conditions  more  profitable  than  growing 
beef.  Under  some  conditions  beef  can  be  profitably  grown 
where  mutton  cannot  and  vice  versa.  Again,  there  are 
conditions  where  either  can  be  more  profitably  produced 
than  milk  or  milk  products.  The  important  matter  is  to 
produce  each  of  these  products  with  reference  to  highest 
adaptation  for  producing  them 


CHAPTER  XX. 

CONSIDERATIONS  THAT  RELATE  TO  THE 
CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Prominent    among   the    considerations    that    relate 
care  of  domestic  animals  are  the  following. 

1.  The  feeder. 

2.  Regularity  in  caring  for  stock. 

3.  Water  for  domestic  animals. 

4.  Amount  of  water  required. 

5.  Furnishing  water  to  animals. 

6.  Shelter  from  weaning  onward. 

7.  Shelter  for  young  animals. 

8.  Protection  for  stock  in  summer. 

9.  Temperature  in  stables. 

10.  The  sources  of  litter. 

11.  The  uses  of  litter. 

12.  Preparing  and  using  litter. 

13.  Amount  of  exercise. 

14.  The   season   of  breeding. 

15.  The  dam  at  parturition. 

These  are  discussed  in  the  order  given. 

The  feeder. — The  importance  of  adaptation  in  live 
stock  to  the.  end  for  which  they  are  kept,  and  to  the  environ- 
ment surrounding  them  has  already  been  discussed.  (See 
p."  31.)  It  is  further  discussed  on  page  74.  The  ad- 
vantage from  feeding  foods  in  approximate  balance  has 
also  been  pointed  out.  (See  Chapter  X.)  But  no  matter  what 
the  adaptation  may  be,  or  the  suitability  of  the  foods  fed, 
adequate  results  will  not  follow  unless  the  feeder,  who  has 
the  animals  in  charge  is  in  every  respect  at  least  reasonably 
qualified  for  his  work. 

The  qualifications  of  a  feeder  are  many.  They  in- 
clude: (i)  Some  knowledge  of  animal  physiology  and 

476 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  4X7 

cnemistry;  (2)  an  industry  and  patience  that  are  untiring; 
(3)  a  fidelity  that  is  unswerving;  and  (4)  an  innate  love 
for  the  work. 

The  feeder  who  has  some  knowledge  of  animal  physi- 
oiogy  is  better  qualified  to  adjust  the  foods  fed  to  the 
needs  of  the  animals  than  the  feeder  without  such  know- 
ledge. He  will  understand  better  the  necessity  for  main- 
taining relative  adjustment  between  the  proportion  of  con- 
centrates and  bulky  fodders  fed.  He  will  also  have  a  more 
correct  idea  of  the  treatment  suitable  for  ailments  and 
diseases  not  sufficiently  important  to  call .  for  the  skill  of 
the  veterinarian.  Some  knowledge  of  chemistry  will 
prove  valuable  in  the  compounding  of  the  food  factors 
of  the  ration  and  also  preparing  them  for  .feeding.  This 
-  does  not  mean,  however,  that  some  men  are  unable  to 
make  their  mark  as  feeders  without  such  knowledge.  This 
has  been  done  in  instances  not  a  few.  But  it  does  mean 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  feeder  possessed  of  the 
knowledge  referred  to  should  succeed  better  in  his  work 
than  the  one  not  possessed  of  it. 

The  successful  feeder  must  be  a  man  of  industrious 
habits.  His  work,  like  that  of  woman,  is  in  a  sense  never 
done.  Her  ministrations  to  the  needs  of  humanity  are 
never  ending  and  his  likewise  to  the  needs  of  the  live  stock 
which  he  feeds  are  continuous.  Giving  food  and  water  to 
the  animals  which  he  has  in  charge,  though  an  important 
part  of  his  work,  is  by  no  means  all  of  it.  The  necessity 
for  attentions  in  various  ways  is  ever  present  during  his 
waking  hours,  and  at  certain  seasons,  as  when  animals  bring 
forth  their  young,  giving  these  attentions  frequently  de- 
prives him  of  his  accustomed  slumbers. 

In  no  line  of  work  is  fidelity  of  greater  importance. 
This  is  owing  to  the  ever  present  necessity  of  furnishing 
the  animals  in  charge  with  food  and  protection.  In  some 
lines  of  work  the  neglect  of  one  day  may  in  a  considerable 
degree  be  made  up  the  next,  but  in  caring  for  animals  it 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

is  different;  with  them  injury  resulting  from  neglect  is  al- 
ways attended  with  loss,  and  in  many  instances,  it  cannot 
be  atoned  for  even  by  extra  care  subsequently.  So  im- 
portant is  fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  feeder  that  without  it 
he  cannot  make  a  success  of  his  work. 

An  innate  love  for  the  work  is  an  important  bestow- 
ment  on  any  feeder,  on  the  principle  that  a  liking  for  the 
work  in  hand  is  a  great  aid  to  anyone  prosecuting  a  definite 
line  of  work.  Its  importance  is  enhanced  in  the  case  of 
feeders  by  the  influence  which  it  exerts  on  the  degree  of  the 
attention  bestowed,  and  the  character  of  the  same,  and  on 
the  self-control  of  the  individual.  The  feeder  who  has  no 
love  for  his  work  does  it  in  a  perfunctory  way.  Food 
is  fed  by  rule  regardless  of  the  individual  needs  of 
the  animal.  He  is  much  prone  also  to  be  impatient  with 
waywardness  in  animals,  in  some  instances  to  the  extent 
of  being  positively  cruel.  The  feeder  who  loves  his  work 
has  a  most  careful  regard  to  the  individual  needs  of  the 
animals.  If  any  is  to  wait  for  a  meal  beyond  the  usual 
time,  it  will  be  himself  rather  than  the  animals  under  his 
care.  He  will  be  gentle,  though  firm  in  dealing  with  them. 
The  animals  in  charge  will  go  to  meet  him  on  his  approach 
rather  than  flee  from  him  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  type 
of  feeder.  It  has  been  said  that  feeders  are  born,  not 
made,  and  there  is  a  large  measure  of  truth  in  the  adage, 
but  a  love  for  feeding  may  also  be  cultivated  to  a  marked 
degree. 

Good  feeders  are  always  in  demand.  This  is  one  of 
the  lines  of  work  which  is  never  over-filled.  It  is  shunned 
by  many  when  deciding  upon  their  life  work  because  it  is 
in  a  sense  confining  work.  It  calls  for  continued  atten- 
tion during  much  of  each  of  the  365  days  in  the  year, 
and  it  is  exacting  in  the  long  hours  called  for  and  at  certain 
seasons  additional  hours  are  taken  from  the  usual  time  for 
sleeping.  To  such  an  extent  is  this  line  of  work  shunned 
by  the  average  American  youth,  that  his  adventurous  spirit 
prevents  him  from  choosing  it.  As  a  result,  it  would  seem 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS       .  479 

safe  to  say,  that  a  majority  of  those  in  this  country  ex- 
clusively engaged  in  feeding  animals  have  come  from 
certain  countries  in  western  Europe,  especially  Great 
Britain,  Denmark,  Holland  and  Germany.  The  demand 
for  this  class  of  work  is  likely  to  continue,  indefinitely,  and 
the  remuneration  will  be  more,  relatively,  than  is  paid  for 
other  lines  of  physical  labor.  The  calling  is  also  less 
subject  to  change  than  in  any  other  line  of  work,  since  a 
change  of  feeders  frequently  brings  with  it  more  hazard 
than  change  in  many  other  lines  in  which  animal  life  is 
not  a  factor.  The  skilled  feeder  is  practically  assured  of 
work,  liberal  maintenance,  and  in  some  instances  compe- 
tence through  all  the  changes  of  the  times. 

Regularity  in  caring  for  stock. — The  importance  of 
regularity  in  everything  that  pertains  to  the  keeping  of 
live  stock  cannot  be  easily  over-estimated.  While  this  ap- 
plies to  every  phase  of  management,  it  does  not  so  apply 
equally.  While  giving  food  and  salt  irregularly  are  both 
to  be  deprecated,  animals  will  take  greater  harm  from  ir- 
regularity in  supplying  the  former.  This  source  of  hind- 
rance to  well  doing  is  especially  significant  when  it  applies, 
(i)  to  the  giving  of  food;  (2)  to  the  giving  of  drink;  (3) 
to  the  milking  of  cows  and  (4)  to  the  working  of  horses. 

Opinions  do  not  always  agree  as  to  the  number  of 
times  that  food  should  be  given  daily.  This  probably  should 
be  gauged  by  the  age  of  the  animal,  by  the  nature  of  the 
digestive  organs,  and  by  the  amount  of  work  performed. 
There  can  be  no  question  but  that  young  animals  should  be 
fed  more  frequently  when  young  than  at  a  later  period,  ow- 
ing in  part,  at  least,  to  the  greater  activity  of  the  digestive 
organs.  Animals  with  relatively  large  stomach  capacity  do 
not  of  necessity  call  for  food  supplies  so  frequently  as  those 
in  which  such  capacity  is  not  so  large.  Two  feeds  a  day  have 
been  found  sufficient  for  cows,  even  when  in  milk,  and  also 
for  animals  well  grown  that  are  being  fattened,  though 
a  considerable  number  adhere  to  the  practice  of  giving  a 
light  feed  of  fodder  in  the  middle  of  the  day  in  addition  to 


480  FEEDING    FARM     ANIMALS 

the  morning  and  evening  feeds,  which  should  be  given  12 
hours  apart,  as  nearly  as  may  be  found  practicable.  The 
stomach  of  the  horse  and  pig  being  less  capacious  than 
that  of  cattle  and  sheep,  would  seem  to  demand  three  feeds 
per  day,  rather  than  two,  and  given  as  nearly  as  practicable 
six  hours  apart. 

But  there  can  be  no  disagreement  with  reference  to 
the  wisdom  of  giving  food  regularly.  The  digestive  system 
of  animals  is  such  that  it  adapts  itself  at  least  measurably  to 
the  system  of  feeding  adopted.  To  change  that  system  for 
even  a  single  meal,  produces  more  or  less  of  digestive 
disturbance  in  the  animal,  as  in  the  individual.  If  food 
is  not  forthcoming  at  the  accustomed  time,  animals  will 
proclaim  their  sense  of  deprivation,  each  in  its  own  pe- 
culiar way.  The  neighing  of  the  horse  for  food,  the  low- 
ing of  the  ox,  the  bleating  of  the  sheep  and  the  squealing 
of  swine,  are  simply  echoes  of  the  outcome  of  the  desire 
for  another  meal.  Undue  fasting  is  followed  by  taking 
an  excessive  supply,  which  in  turn  calls  for  excessive  drink- 
ing, hence,  digestive  disturbance  follows.  The  effects  from 
irregular  feeding  and  changed  conditions  are  well  brought 
out  in  the  fact  that  animals  usually  lose  in  weight  when 
making  the  circuit  of  the  autumn  fairs. 

When  water  is  withheld  beyond  the  usual  time,  a  sense 
of  deprivation  is  felt,  then  it  is  taken  to  excess.  Disturb- 
ance follows  in  secreting  the  digestive  fluids,  and  just  in 
proportion  to  the  irregularity  will  be  the  loss  that  follows. 
Warm  temperatures  and  hard  work  may  and  do  call  for 
taking  water  more  frequently  than  at  other  times,  but 
under  normal  conditions,  the  aim  should  be  to  supply  it  at 
stated  times. 

Nowhere  in  the  management  of  domestic  animals  is  the 
importance  of  regularity  more  clearly  shown  than  in  the 
milking  of  cows.  A  single  instance  of  milking  deferred  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time  will  be  followed  by  decrease 
in  the  next  milking  and  in  some  instances  in  several  milkings. 
It  has  been  noticed  that  to  defer  milking  for  an  hour  or  more, 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  481 

as  for  instance  on  Sabbath  morning,  will  tend  to  diminish 
the  yield  perceptibly  for  more  than  one  milking  immediately 
following.  For  the  discussion  of  other  influences  that  af- 
fect milk  yields,  see  page  419. 

The  exertion  of  work  calls  for  more  food  and  for  tak- 
ing it  more  frequently  than  when  animals  are  at  rest.  Be- 
cause of  this,  while  horses  that  are  idle  and  that  are  simply 
being  carried  through  the  winter,  may  fare  well  enough 
on  two  feeds  a  day,  it  is  imperative  that  those  at  work  shall 
have  three  feeds,  and  it  is  important  that  food  shall  be 
given  on  time.  Work  carried  beyond  the  usual  time  for 
taking  food  means  a  more  rapid  expenditure  of  energy  than 
at  other  times,  and  this  means  so  far  a  lowering  of  digestive 
capacity  when  food  is  given.  Hence  it  is,  that  irregularity 
and  want  of  uniformity  in  feeding  are  always  followed  by 
results  not  entirely  satisfactory. 

Water  for  domestic  animals.— Water  is  furnished  to 
domestic  animals  for  the  three-fold  purpose  of  aiding  the 
digestive  processes,  cooling  the  body  and  allaying  thirst. 
Of  these  uses,  the  first  is  probably  the  most  important.  Be- 
fore food  can  be  digested  that  portion  of  the  nutrients  ap- 
propriated by  the  body  must  first  be  reduced  to  a  soluble 
condition  before  they  can  be  so  utilized  and  to  effect  this 
end,  water  is  usually  necessary  in  addition  to  that  contained 
in  the  food.  Where  the  supply  of  water  is  insufficient  for 
the  needs  of  the  body,  the  tissues  are  not  kept  sufficiently 
moist,  nor  is  there  enough  to  maintain  proper  action  in  the 
excretory  glands  of  the  skin,  consequently  the  temperature 
rises  and  thirst  is  induced  in  proportion  as  the  water  supply 
is  insufficient.  In  hot  weather,  water  applied  externally 
to  the  bodies  of  swine  tends  to  cool  the  same  in  a  marked 
degree  and  is,  therefore,  conductive  to  thrift. 

Thirst  is  always  present  when  the  supply  of  water  is 
insufficient.  It  is  a  source  of  irritation  and  unrest.  It  also 
hinders  more  or  less  the  digestive  processes  and  so  far 
hinders  performance.  When  animals  become  thirsty  be- 
yond certain  limits,  they  drink  abnormal  amounts  of  water 


482  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

and  this  also  is  adverse  to  performance.  The  necessity, 
therefore,  for  furnishing  them  with  an  ample  supply  of 
water  is  ever  present,  notwithstanding  that  water  is  in 
no  sense  a  food. 

The  primary  source  of  water  is  of  course  the  clouds. 
The  natural  channels  by.  which  it  is  conveyed  to  animals 
are  two-fold;  viz.,  directly,  as  in  the  act  of  drinking,  and 
indirectly  in  the  plants  consumed  as  food.  The  sources 
of  supply  from  the  clouds  may  be  classed  as  natural  and 
artificial.  The  natural  sources  include  springs,  running 
streams  and  basins  made  by  nature.  The  artificial  sources 
include  ordinary  and  artesian  wells,  cisterns  and  basins 
made  in  the  earth.  The  supply  furnished  in  plants  is  con- 
siderable. The  amount  thus  furnished  is  influenced  by  the 
class  to  which  the  plant  belongs  and  the  condition  in  which 
it  is  fed.  Succulent  grass,  green  corn  and  field  roots  con- 
tain about  90  per  cent  of  water,  speaking  roughly,  and  the 
concentrated  grains  about  10  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
water  called  for  from  other  sources  will  of  course  be  re- 
duced in  proportion  as  water  is  present  in  the  food.  Be- 
cause of  the  amount  of  water  in  the  food,  some  classes  of 
animals  may  not  need  water  from  other  sources.  This  is 
true  in  some  instances  of  cattle  and  sheep  that  are  fed  a 
large  amount  of  roots,  and  of  sheep  grazing  on  succulent 
rape  pasture. 

Water  is  helpful  to  animals  in  proportion  as  the  supply 
is  abundant,  sweet,  pure  and  of  the  right  temperature.  The 
necessity  for  a  plentiful  supply  is  self  evident.  Water  is 
sweet  when  it  does  not  contain  any  chemical  substances 
distasteful  to  live  stock.  In  some  areas  of  the  range,  water 
is  so  strongly  impregnated  with  alkali  and  other  sub- 
stances, that  animals  will  not  drink  it.  Water  is  pure  when 
it  does  not  contain  any  foreign  substances  that  render  it 
in  any  degree  unwholesome. 

The  sources  of  the  purest  water  are  springs,  running 
streams  and,  in  some  instances,  surface  and  artesian  wells. 
When  first  collected  in  cisterns  and  in  natural  or  artificial 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  483 

basins,  it  is  pure,  but  when  it  remains  long  in  these,  in  a 
stagnant  condition  and  without  renewal  in  the  supply,  its 
purity  lowers,  unless  in  cold  latitudes.  Motion  is  necessary 
in  water  under  normal  conditions  in  order  to  maintain  its 
purity.  Of  the  sources  of  supply  named,  water  obtained 
from  artificial  basins  or  ponds,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
in  which  large  numbers  of  animals  are  allowed  to  drink 
from  time  to  time,  is  the  most  impure.  Such  water  will 
not  furnish  good  flavored  milk  when  drunk  by  cows,  and 
it  is  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  sheep.  The  same  is  true 
of  water  in  basins  into  which  the  soakage  of  or  seepage 
from  barnyards  finds  its  way.  Nor  is  the  stagnant  water 
which  collects  in  marshes  wholesome  in  hot  weather,  and  es- 
pecially late  in  the  season.  Such  water  is  especially  injurious 
to  sheep,  since  it  seems  favorable  to  the  growth  of  parasites 
which  prey  upon  them.  Swine  seem  to  be  less  injured 
by  impure  water  than  other  animals,  but  unquestionably 
pure  water  is  best  for  them  also.  They  are  oftentimes 
greatly  wronged  by  the  impurities  in  the  water  given  to 
them. 

Amount  of  water  required. — The  amount  of  water  re- 
quired by  animals  is  influenced :  ( I )  By  the  character  of  the 
food;  (2)  by  the  nature  of  the  weather;  (3)  by  the  copious- 
ness of  the  dews  and  (4)  by  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
performance.  Sometimes  these  influences  act  singly,  but 
more  commonly  they  act  more  or  less  in  conjunction. 

Food  influences  the  consumption  of  water  more 
through  the  presence  or  lack  of  succulence  than  in  any 
other  way.  But  the  proportion  of  protein  in  the  food,  it  is 
thought,  exercises  some  influence,  and  the  same  is  unques- 
tionably true  of  salt.  Salt  increases  the  circulation  of  the 
juices  of  the  body  and  thus  favors  increase  in  protein  con- 
sumption. Many  experiments  have  shown  that  the  addition 
of  field  roots,  corn  ensilage  or  soiling  food  reduces  the 
consumption  of  water  in  at  least  approximate  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  to  which  they  are  fed  and  to  the 
amount  of  water  they  contain.  Such  food  may  be  given 


484  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

under  some  conditions  to  the  extent  of  satisfying  the  needs 
of  the  animals  as  to  water.  Experiments  conducted  at  the 
Kansas  and  also  at  the  Wisconsin  station  showed  that  in- 
crease in  the  protein  in  the  food  increased  the  consump- 
tion of  water.  Salt  consumed  in  excess  by  animals  salt 
hungry,  will  invariably  lead  to  the  consumption  of  a  large 
amount  of  water. 

But  there  is  something  in  the  nature  of  certain  foods 
that  influences  the  consumption  of  water  apart  from  the 
amount  of  water  they  contain.  Corn  and  barley,  for  in- 
stance, contain  virtually  the  same  amounts  of  water  and 
in  experiments  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  station,  it  was 
found  that  the  swine  fattened  on  barley  meal  required  about 
3  pounds  of  water  for  every  2  pounds  required  by  those  fed 
on  corn  meal.  The  water  used  in  soaking  the  meal  is  in- 
cluded in  both  instances.  Bran  and  oil  cake  when  freely 
fed  lead  to  increased  water  consumption. 

The  weather  exercises  a  potent  influence  on  the  con- 
sumption of  water.  The  quantity  of  water  consumed  in- 
creases as  temperatures  rise,  other  things  being  equal.  This 
is  owing  in  part  at  least  to  the  greater  activity  of  the  ex- 
cretory organs  especially  the  glands  of  the  skin  as  previ- 
ously intimated.  The  necessity  for  water  is  so  great  in  hot 
weather  that  it  is  probable  no  diet,  however  succulent,  will 
completely  obviate  the  necessity  for  taking  it. 

The  copious  character  of  the  dews  or  the  opposite  ex- 
ercise an  important  influence  on  water  requirement,  but 
no  amount  of  dew  will  preclude  the  necessity  of  any  class 
of  domestic  animals  for  taking  water  when  the  grazing  has 
but  little  succulence.  The  moistness  or  dryness  of  the  atmos- 
phere exercises  an  influence  on  the  consumption  of  water 
both  directly  and  indirectly.  The  indirect  influence  comes 
through  increase  or  decrease  in  the  succulence  of  the  plants. 
The  same  plant  grown  in  a  dry  atmosphere  has  less  of 
moisture  in  it  than  if  grown  in  a  moist  atmosphere. 

It  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  consump- 
tion of  water  increases  relatively  with  increase  in  per- 
formance. A  horse  at  labor  takes  much  more  water 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  48$ 

than  one  at  rest  or  that  is  idle,  and  a  horse  severely 
exercised  will  take  more  than  one  moderately  exer- 
cised. A  cow  giving  milk  will  drink  more  water  than 
one  dry.  A  steer  that  is  being  fattened  will  take  more 
water  than  a  store  steer  and  the  same  is  true  of  sheep  and 
swine  when  going  through  the  fattening  process,  as  com- 
pared with  animals  of  the  same  class  that  are  simply  being 
grown.  More  water  is  called  for  as  exercise  increases  in  the 
horse  to  replace  the  amount  lost  through  a  corresponding- 
increase  in  the  activity  of  the  glands  of  the  skin  and  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  With  cows  giving  milk  and  animals 
that  are  being  fattened,  the  increase  is  due  to  increase  in 
food  consumption  which  calls  for  corresponding  increase  in 
water  consumption  to  carry  on  properly  the  digestive  proc- 
esses. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  apparent,  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  state  the  exact  amount  of  water  required  by 
animals.  It  has  been  claimed  that  cattle  require  about  4 
pounds  of  water  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  in  the  food 
and  that  sheep  call  for  half  that  amount.  A  number  of 
experiments  have  been  conducted  to  throw  light  upon  this 
question  and  findings  may  be  given,  but  why  give  them? 
As  a  rule  the  water  supply  is  unlimited.  It  is  also  certain 
that  under  normal  conditions,  animals  will  not  drink  it 
to  excess.  It  is  equally  true  that  they  should  have  access  to 
it  with  reasonable  frequency  and  to  the  extent  of  their 
needs.  The  important  considerations,  therefore,  are  not 
such  as  relate  to  the  amount  that  will  be  consumed,  but 
rather  such  as  have  a  bearing  on  the  abundance  of  the 
supply,  its  easy  accessibility  and  its  temperature. 

The  temperature  of  water  for  stock  is  of  considerable 
importance  both  winter  and  summer.  In  winter  it  is  too 
cold  for  best  use  when  ice  forms  on  it.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  water  for  cows  giving  milk.  On  the  other  hand, 
experiments  have  shown  that  but  little  advantage  comes 
from  heating  water  for  dairy  cows  that  is  entirely  free 
from  ice,  when  taken  in  a  comfortable  place.  Water  should 


486  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

be  heated,  however,  for  animals  when  given  immediately 
subsequently  to  the  time  of  parturition,  lest  a  chill  should 
follow  taking  it  when  the  system  is  thus  fevered.  In  winter 
water  heated  more  or  less  will  be  found  more  suitable  for 
swine  than  ice  cold  water.  In  summer  cold  water  is  more 
agreeable  to  animals  than  warm  water,  but  horses  in  a  much 
heated  condition  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink  it  in  large 
quantities  at  the  close  of  a  labor  period,  lest  it  should  re- 
sult in  producing  that  stiffening  of  the  limbs  often  spoken 
of  as  "founder." 

Furnishing  water  to  animals. — In  the  pastures,  water 
is  best  supplied  from  springs  and  running  streams,  also 
by  flowing  wells,  where  one  or  the  other  of  these  can  be 
obtained.  Next  to  these  in  suitability  and  convenience 
are  wells  of  limited  depth,  from  which  the  water  is  pumped 
up  into  troughs  by  wind  power  which  works  automatically. 
When  the  sup-ply  must  be  secured  from  artificial  basins,  the 
aim  should  be  to  construct  these  on  elevations  so  high  as  to 
admit  of  conveying  the  water  by  gravity  to  the  place  or 
places  where  it  is  wanted. 

In  the  winter  when  the  stock  is  confined  to  stables  or 
sheds,  the  aim  should  be  to  have  the  drinking  tanks  or 
troughs  under  cover  as  matter  of  protection  for  the  ani- 
mals while  drinking  in  stormy  weather,  and  also  to  insure 
more  warmth  in  the  water.  When  the  tanks  are  in  the 
yards,  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  furnish  them  with 
heaters  to  prevent  the  temperature  of  the  water  from  fall- 
ing too  low.  For  the  proper  temperature,  see  page  485.  When 
the  water  is  pumped  by  hand,  if  the  pumping  is  done  im- 
mediately before  the  animals  which  drink  are  given  access 
to  it,  the  temperature  will  be  about  right.  The  same  is 
true  of  water  supplied  automatically  in  basins  in  the  stalls. 
For  work  horses  and  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  this 
method  of  supplying  water  is  not  really  objectionable,  if  the 
basins  are  kept  reasonably  clean,  but  it  has  been  found 
difficult  to  keep  them  clean  enough  to  meet  the  needs  of 
dairy  cows,  because  of  the  traceable  adverse  influence  some- 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  487 

times  exerted  on  milk  flavor.  For  nearly  all  kinds  of  do- 
mestic animals,  water  of  swift  current  running  through  a 
yard  will  meet  their  needs,  and  at  a  minimum  expenditure 
of  labor.  But  sheep  cannot  always  be  induced  to  drink 
from  such  a  source.  In  large  lots  they  are  best  supplied  with 
water  in  a  low  tank  and  where  it  will  not  congeal.  Where 
it  does,  the  tank  should  be  in  a  yard  and  supplied  with  a 
heater.  In  small  lots,  the  water  is  best  supplied  in  a  shallow 
tub  in  each  compartment,  from  pails  or  hose,  and  these  can 
be  overturned  in  cold  weather  after  the  sheep  have  been 
supplied.  It  is  simply  cruel  to  deprive  sheep  of  water  in 
winter,  except  in  so  far  as  they  can  take  it  from  the  snow, 
although  the  practice  is  common.  ,  Water  is  usually  supplied 
to  swine  not  on  pasture,  in  conjunction  with  the  food. 

The  frequency  with  which  water  should  be  furnished 
to  animals  is  dependent  upon  such  conditions  as :  ( I )  The 
nature  of  the  food  fed;  (2)  the  amount  of  performance 
required  as  to  labor  or  the  production  of  meat  or  milk,  and 
(3)  the  temperature  of  the  weather. 

The  food  may  be  given  so  succulent  as  to  entirely  ob- 
viate the  necessity  for  giving  water  in  addition,  as  when 
sheep  are  grazed  on  succulent  pastures.  When  animals 
are  fattened  on  field  roots  and  meal  only,  with  a  very 
small  addition  of  fodder,  they  require  but  little  additional 
water.  It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say,  however,  that 
no  class  of  domestic  animals  except  sheep  can  be  kept  long 
on  pastures  so  succulent  as  to  entirely  eliminate  the  necessity 
for  giving  additional  water. 

When  labor  or  road  driving  is  required  of  horses,  they 
should  be  given  water  more  frequently  than  when  at  rest. 
There  are  conditions  when  water  supplied  once  a  day  for 
horses  is  ample  when  at  rest  and  the  same  is  true  of  other 
classes  of  domestic  animals,  but  when  exercised  severely, 
especially  in  warm  weather,  a  moderate  amount  furnished 
between  meals  in  addition  to  what  is  furnished  at  other 
times  is  helpful.  Ordinarily  work  horses  are  given  water 
three  times  daily,  that  is,  morning,  noon  and  evening.  Once 


FEEDING    FARM    ANIMAI 

a  day  may  be  sufficient  to  furnish  water  to  store  cattle,  es- 
pecially when  on  moderately  succulent  pasture  and  in  cool 
weather,  but  when  kept  entirely  on  dry  food,  they  should 
have  it  twice  a  day.  When  being  fattened  or  fed  heavily 
for  milk  production,  and  largely  or  chiefly  on  dry  food, 
they  should  be  given  water  at  least  twice  a  day  to  meet  the 
largely  increased  demand  the  increase  in  such  food  calls 
for.  Similarly  the  demand  for  water  increases  with  sheep 
and  swine,  with  increase  in  grain  fed.  It  is  usually  easily 
possible  to  supply  water  to  sheep  where  it  will  be  accessible 
much  of  the  day  or  all  of  it,  and  this  is  the  ideal  way  of 
furnishing  it  to  them.  Ordinarily  water  is  supplied  to  swine 
in  the  slop  fed  to  them,  that  is,  it  is  given  to  them  three 
times  a  day,  but  generally  when  pushed  as  in  fattening, 
they  should  be  given  water  additional  to  the  extent  of  their 
needs. 

The  excretory  organs,  especially  those  of  the  skin,  are 
so  active  in  hot  weather  that  mr.ch  water  is  needed  to  sup- 
ply the  loss.  This  means  that  it  should  be  given  more 
frequently  in  proportion  as  the  heat  increases,  otherwise  it 
is  liable  to  be  taken  to  excess. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  water  should  be  given 
to  horses  before  or  after  meals.  The  preponderance  in 
opinion  favors  watering  before  meals  to  avoid  washing  out 
much  of  the  food  too  soon  from  the  small  stomach  of  the 
horse,  into  the  intestines.  This  would  follow  more  or  less, 
watering  deferred  until  after  meals.  Some  persons  favor  of- 
fering water  before  and  after  meals.  With  cattle,  water  is 
more  commonly  given  between  meals.  They  seem  better  sat- 
isfied when  food  is  given  before  water.  The  stomach  of  cattle 
and  sheep  being  large,  and  therefore  capable  of  holding 
large  quantities  of  water,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  physio- 
logical reasons  why  water  should  be  given  at  one  time 
rather  than  another. 

Shelter  from  weaning  onward. — The  degree  of  the 
shelter  required  from  the  weaning  period  onward,  va- 
ries in  the  different  classes  of  animals.  It  is  decreasingly 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  489 

necessary  with  swine,  cattle,  sheep  and  horses,  in  the  order 
named.  It  is  more  necessary  for  cows  (see  p.  438)  than 
for  growing  cattle  beyond  calf-hood,  and  more  necessary 
for  growing  cattle  than  for  cattle  that  are  being  fattened. 
In  fact  it  is  more  necessary  for  all  classes  of  growing 
animals  than  for  those  of  the  same  class  that  are  being 
fattened,  as  the  food  which  produces  fat  generates  much 
heat,  and  the  layer  of  fat  underneath  the  skin  is  an  ad- 
ditional protection.  Climate  also  exercises  an  important, 
influence.  Stock  exposed  in  latitudes  where  the  air  is  dry 
and  where  the  sunshine  is  relatively  abundant,  will  suffer 
much  less  than  animals  exposed  at  equal  temperatures 
where  the  air  is  damp  and  the  weather  dark  and  gloomy. 

Shelter  for  swine  must  be  of  a  character  to  protect 
them  from  draughts  and  also  from  low  temperatures.  The 
temperature  of  the  pens  like  that  of  the  stables  for  dairy 
cows  should  range  from,  say  40  to  60°.  Trials  conducted  at 
certain  experiment  stations  show  very  clearly  the  benefit 
from  fattening  swine  with  suitable  shelter  as  against  fatten- 
ing under  conditions  the  opposite.  In  a  trial  conducted  at  the 
Kansas  experiment  station,  it  was  found  that  swine  fur- 
nished with  shelter  during  the  10  weeks  of  fattening,  made 
100  pounds  of  increase  on  25  per  cent  less  corn  than  those 
exposed  to  yard  conditions.  The  feeding  began  No- 
vember 27. 

The  following  includes  some  of  the  essentials  best  suited 
to  furnishing  shelter  for  stock  cattle :  ( I )  A  suitably  ven- 
tilated shed  or  dry  and  well  lighted  basement,  warm  enough 
to  practically  exclude  freezing  temperatures;  (2)  doors  on 
the  sunny  side  facing  a  yard  protected  from  wind,  and  that 
may  or  may  not  be  left  open;  (3)  a  well  bedded  yard  that 
may  at  all  times  be  kept  dry.  But  even  with  these  condi- 
tions it  may  be  necessary  to  tie  some  of  the  weaker  animals 
in  stalls  to  adapt  the  food  to  their  special  needs.  Succes- 
sive experiments  conducted  with  yearlings  at  the  Missouri 
station  resulted  markedly  in  favor  of  such  protection  as 
against  yard  conditions,  with  open  shed.  With  cattle  that 


4QO  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

are  being  fattened  it  may  be  different  (see  p.  395),  unless 
care  is  taken  not  to  keep  the  sheds  too  warm. 

The  following  includes  some  of  the  essentials  best 
suited  to  furnishing  shelter  for  a  breeding  flock  of  sheep: 
(i)  A  well-ventilated  building  enclosed  and  facing  on  the 
leeward  side  a  sunny  and  protected  yard;  (2)  except  for 
the  lambing-pen  it  is  not  necessary  to  seek  additional 
warmth  to  that  furnished  by  one  thickness  of  matched 
boards;  (3)  doors  cut  across  the  center  and  hung  on  the 
yard  side,  to  be  kept  open  above  or  below  as  may  be  de- 
sired; (4)  a  yard  at  all  times  -dry  and  kept  well  bedded 
when  occupied.  For  sheep  that  are  being  fattened  an  open 
shed  will  suffice. 

An  open  shed  will  also  suffice  to  furnish  protection  for 
colts  subsequent  to  the  age  of  one  year  and  for  idle  horses. 
These  should  face  protected  yards,  and  the  latter  should 
have  communication  with  paddocks  or  pastures  to  enable 
them  at  suitable  times  to  take  larger  exercise.  Work  horses 
and  foals  need  enclosed  quarters  in  winter.  The  former  be- 
ing tied,  usually  profit  by  blanketing  in  addition. 

Shelter  for  young  animals. — The  degree  of  the  shelter 
required  for  young  animals,  more  especially  during 
the  first  few  days  of  life,  is  much  greater  than  in 
the  case  of  animals  that  are  older.  This  is  true  of  all  classes 
of  animals,  as  foals,  calves,  lambs  and  pigs,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  equally  true  of  them.  The  smaller  the  animal,  the 
larger  relatively  the  amount  of  surface  for  the  radiation  of 
body  heat,  and  consequently  the  loss  of  heat  is  relatively 
greater.  The  leaner  the  young  animal  is  also,  the  more 
intensified  is  this  condition. 

Foals,  of  all  young  farm  animals,  can  best  endure 
cold,  owing  first,  to  the  greater  relative  size,  and  second  to 
the  naturally  more  active  habits  which  they  possess.  But, 
in  cold  climates,  the  protection  of  an  open  shed  which  may 
be  ample  for  colts  more  than  one  year  old,  would  not  be 
sufficient  for  the  sucking  foal. 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

Young  calves  would  fare  badly  under  conditions  of  ex- 
posure that  would  bring  no  harm  to  cattle  that  are  older. 
If  tied  and  thus  prevented  from  taking  exercise,  the  neces- 
sity for  protection  is  considerably  increased.  One  course 
of  sheeting,  in  the  absence  of  some  additional  covering  as 
tar  paper,  on  the  side  of  a  stable,  does  not  in  all  instances 
make  it  warm  enough  for  such  calves.  The  necessity  for 
better  protection  continues  until  they  have  passed  the  first 
winter,  at  whatsoever  season  they  may  have  been  born. 

Lambs  are  much  more  tender  than  calves  during  the 
first  few  hours  of  existence.  When  born  in  winter  in  cold 
climates,  it  is  imperative  that  they  come  into  life  under  con- 
ditions that  will  protect  them  from  intense  cold,  as  for  in- 
stance in  a  lambing-pen  or  apartment,  or  in  some  portion 
of  a  dry  basement.  After  lambs  are  a  few  days  old,  they 
do  not  take  much  harm  from  low  temperatures,  and  when 
they  reach  the  age  of  two  or  three  weeks,  they  seem  capable 
of  enduring  about  as  much  cold  as  the  older  sheep.  The 
explanation  is  found  in  part  in  the  covering  of  wool  given 
to  them  by  nature,  and  in  part  in  their  active  habits. 

Young  swine  are  the  most  tender  of  the  young  quad- 
rupeds kept  upon  the  farm.  This  arises  in  part  from  the 
sparse  covering  with  which  nature  has  furnished  them. 
Under  some  climatic  conditions,  it  may  not  be  easy  at  all 
times  to  preserve  life  in  the  newly  born  pig,  unless  the 
apartment  is  specially  well  fitted  to  shut  out  extreme  cold. 
A  division  of  a  well  ordered  basement  may  furnish  such  a 
place.  In  cold  weather  the  quarters  suitable  for  swine  dur- 
ing the  suckling  period  should  be  at  least  as  warm  as  those 
suitable  for  dairy  cows  in  milk. 

It  is  especially  important  that  young  animals  be  given 
the  benefit  of  ample  sunshine,  that  the  places  on  which  they 
rest  shall  be  well  bedded  and  dry,  and  that  they  are  not 
exposed  to  falling  storms,  as  snow,  sleet  or  rain.  The  more 
of  sunshine  they  enjoy,  the  better  relatively  will  they 
prosper,  but  when  they  are  to  be  slaughtered  young,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  provide  sunlight  or  even  much  light.  Damp 


492  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

sleeping  places  are  greatly  injurious,  and  exposure  to  a 
cold  rain  or  sleet  storm  may  prove  fatal.  It  should  also  be 
remembered,  that  the  degree  of  the  protection  required  in 
climates  naturally  damp  is  greater  than  in  those  naturally 
dry. 

Protection  for  stock  in  summer. — Although  the  neces- 
sity for  protecting  stock  in  winter  is  more  important  rela- 
tively than  in  summer,  yet  certain  forms  of  protection  in 
summer  exercise  an  important  influence  on  the  returns 
which  they  will  give  for  the  food.  They  require  protection : 
(i)  From  excessive  heat;  (2)  from  the  disturbance  caused 
by  flies,  and  (3)  in  some  instances  from  prolonged  storms. 

Protection  from  heat  in  the  case  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep 
and  swine,  can  only  be  secured  by  shielding  them  from  the 
hot  rays  of  the  sun,  under  conditions  that  will  not  tend  to 
check  the  movement  of  air  currents.  With  swine,  the  addi- 
tional provision  of  a  wallow  will  add  much  to  their  com- 
fort. Protection  from  excessive  sunshine  is  secured  by 
means  of  shade  in,  or  accessible  to  the  pastures,  and  from 
the  same  buildings  that  furnish  protection  in  winter. 

The  ideal  conditions  for  shade  in  pastures  are  found 
in  a  natural  grove  beside  running  water.  A  remnant  of 
forest  included  in  a  permanent  pasture  and  made  accessible 
to  other  pastures  is  very  suitable  for  providing  shade. 
Clumps  of  trees  are  to  be  preferred  to  single  trees,  as  they 
interfere  less  with  cultivation.  In  planting  trees  to  furnish 
shade,  they  do  not  virtually  interfere  with  cultivation  when 
planted  in  the  corners  of  the  pasture  or  field,  and  when 
planting  them,  those  varieties  should  be  preferred  that 
grow  quickly  and  that  send  their  roots  so  far  down  as  not 
to  take  harm  readily  because  of  the  treading  of  stock.  For 
this  purpose  no  other  tree  excels  the  American  elm. 
In  the  absence  of  trees,  shade  may  be  provided  usually 
without  much  cost,  by  making  a  flat  roof  of  poles  sustained 
by  posts  and  covered  with  straw. 

The  stables  used  for  shelter  in  winter,  when  properly 
ventilated,  are  usually  cooler  than  groves  in  very  hot 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  493 

weather.  Basement  stables  are  also  cooler  than  ordinary 
stables.  The  stable  protection  has  the  further  advantages 
of  being  less  wasteful  of  the  droppings  and  of  protecting 
from  flies.  Where  it  can  be  arranged,  especially  during 
the  season  when  flies  are  numerous,  the  ideal  way  for  keep- 
ing cattle  and  sheep  is  to  house  them  in  the  heat  of  the  day 
and  to  give  them  the  liberty  of  the  pastures  at  other  times. 

When  stock  are  housed  to  protect  from  flies  the  stables 
or  sheds  must  be  darkened  and  yet  ventilated.  This  is  ac- 
complished by  opening  the  windows  to  make  air  currents 
and  by  covering  them  at  the  same  time  with  material,  as 
coarse  sacking,  that  will  exclude  much  of  the  light,  keep 
out  flies,  and  that  will  at  the  same  time,  admit  the  air  freely. 
Much  may  also  be  done  to  keep  down  flies  by  promptly  re- 
moving the  manure  made  which  is  a  favorite  breeding 
ground  for  flies,  and  strewing  lime  occasionally  where  it 
may  do  good  around  the  buildings. 

Cattle -are  sometimes  further  protected  from  flies  by 
spraying  them  every  few  days  with  some  preparation,  as 
sheep  dip,  or  kerosene  emulsion  applied  as  a  very  fine  spray. 
Where  the  number  of  animals  is  limited,  it  is  applied  wit^i  a 
brush.  Such  offensive  preparations  as  fish  oil,  have  also 
been  used  with  good  effect.  These  preparations  are  only 
effective  for  a  few  days  at  a  time,  hence,  unless  special 
apparatus  has  been  fitted  up  for  applying  them  quickly,  as 
in  a  narrow  passageway  through  which  the  animals  are 
forced  to  pass,  the  labor  involved  is  very  considerable.  To 
apply  them  thus,  however,  has  been  found  perfectly  feasible. 
Horses  that  are  being  driven  are  protected,  of  course,  by 
covering  them  with  suitable  netting.  The  darkened  sheds 
which  furnish  protection  for  sheep  at  the  season  indicated, 
would  seem  to  furnish  a  safe  asylum  from  the  assaults  of 
the  gadfly,  (Tabanus  ruficornis),  which  is  the  source  of  that 
trouble  known  as  "grub  in  the  head."  The  wallow  for 
swine  is  a  great  source  of  comfort  in  hot  weather,  and  is  to 
some  extent  a  protection  from  flies. 


494  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Usually  in  the  hot  summer  season,  it  is  not  very  often 
that  such  stock  as  horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  swine,  need 
protection  from  storms.  In  some  instances,  they  may,  how- 
ever, when  these  are  prolonged,  and  especially  when  the 
rainfall  is  of  the .  drenching  character.  In  the  late  spring 
and  early  autumn,  storms  sometimes  occur  so  prolonged 
and  severe  as  to  result  in  much  harm  to  live  stock  that 
are  not  housed  during  their  continuance.  The  reference  is 
to  cold  rains.  They  are  more  harmful  to  stock  than  many 
of  the  snow  storms  of  the  winter.  Lambs  and  young 
swine,  and  animals  of  all  classes  that  are  weakly,  suffer 
much  from  them.  The  pastures  also  may  suffer  much  from 
treading  at  such  times,  especially  should  the  animals  be 
possessed  of  much  weight. 

Temperature  in  stables. — The  degree  of  warmth  re- 
quired by  domestic  animals  differs:  (i)  With  the  species 
(see  p.  98)  ;  (2)  with  condition  in  the  animals  (see  p.  395)  ; 
(3)  with  the  age  (see  p.  490),  and  (4)  with  the  climate 
(see  p.  79).  In  many  instances  those  differences  have 
not  been  sufficiently  regarded  in  the  management  of  live 
stock. 

From  what  has  just  been  stated,  it  will  be  manifest 
that  the  proper  degree  of  temperature  to  be  maintained  in 
stables  for  domestic  animals  will  vary  considerably.  For 
work  horses  that  are  tied  and  blanketed,  the  temperature 
should  not  go  below,  say  36°,  nor  above  60°,  with,  say 
about  48°  as  a  mean.  When  not  blanketed  it  may  properly 
range  higher  by  a  few  degrees.  When  loose  in  box  stalls, 
it  may  be  a  few  degrees  lower.  The  degree  of  temperature 
named  would  also  be  suitable  for  foals,  while  young  animals 
but  older  than  foals  would  do  as  well  or  better  with 
temperatures  a  few  degrees  lower.  The  temperature  suited 
to  dairy  cows  would  run  from,  say  40  to  60°,  with  say, 
50°  as  a  mean. 

For  animals  fattening  it  would  run  from  32  to  50°, 
with  40°  as  a  mean.  The  more  advanced  the  fattening 
period  the  lower  should  be  the  temperature.  For  calves 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  495 

the  temperature  should  be  the  same  as  for  cows,  and  for 
young  animals  that  are  older  about  the  same  as  for  cattle 
that  are  being  fattened.  For  sheep  unshorn,  the  nearer 
the  temperature  is  to  the  freezing  point  but  without  freez- 
ing, the  better.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  the  same  range 
between  32  and  50°,  the  latter  being  sufficiently  warm  for 
even  newly  born  lambs  and  also  for  sheep  that  are  newly 
shorn.  For  swine  the  temperature  should  be  about  the 
same  as  for  dairy  cows,  60°  being  sufficiently  warm  for 
newly  born  swine. 

Of  course,  in  practice,  it  is  not  possible  to  keep  tem- 
peratures within  the  ranges  named  either  in  winter  or  sum- 
mer, but  much  may  be  done  to  approximate  them  to  the 
figures  submitted,  which  are  only  given  as  general  and 
not  as  absolute  guides.  The  temperature  in  stables  may  rise 
higher  than  those  named  and  no  harm  come  to  the  animals, 
but  they  should  not  fall  in  any  instances  below  the  freezing 
point,  where  this  can  be  avoided,  except  probably  in  the 
case  of  unshorn  sheep  which  will  take  no  harm  though 
the  temperatures  should  be  lower.  The  lower  the  tempera- 
tures can  be  kept  without  harm  to  the  animals,  the  better, 
because  of  the  relatively  greater  abundance  of  the  oxygen 
supply. 

To  secure  proper  temperatures  in  winter  in  the  absence 
of  artificial  heat,  is  no  easy  matter,  and  to  provide  artificial 
heat  is  not  practical.  Warmth  must  be  secured  through 
proper  construction  in  the  buildings,  and  not  through 
air  heated  by  the  breathing  of  the  animals  in  the  absence  of 
suitable  ventilation.  The  temperature  will  then  be.  regulated 
through  ventilation,  but  the  construction  of  buildings  and 
ventilation  cannot  be  discussed  in  this  work  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  good  ventilation  in  buildings  is  absolutely 
essential  to  highest  performance  in  animals  that  are  housed. 

To  secure  suitable  temperature  in  summer  is  more 
difficult  than  in  winter.  At  certain  times  it  may  be  im- 
possible because  of  atmospheric  conditions  without.  But 
much  may  be  done  to  regulate  temperatures  by  keeping 


496  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

animals  in  airy  stables  by  day,  and  outside  at  night.  Base- 
ment stables  are  relatively  the  cooler  in  summer. 

The  sources  of  litter. — The  following  are  the  principal 
sources  from  which  bedding  or  litter  is  obtained:  (i) 
The  straw  of  cereals  in  all  the  varieties  thereof  used  direct- 
ly; (2)  the  rejected  portions  of  straw  and  hay  material 
supplied  as  food;  (3)  the  uneaten  parts  of  corn  stalks  and 
the  sorghums  when  properly  prepared; .  (4)  refuse  from 
certain  manufactures;  (5)  the  leaves  of  trees;  (6)  certain 
kinds  of  soil;  (7)  peat,  in  various  stages  of  decay. 

The  straw  of  cereals  is  by  far  the  most  important 
source  of  litter,  and  also  the  most  suitable  all  things 
considered.  Viewed  simply  from  the  standpoint  of  suit- 
ability, oat  straw  probably  stands  at  the  head,  because  of 
its  softness.  Rye  straw  does  not  break  up  so  much  as 
some  varieties  in  threshing,  is  less  soft,  and  is  slower  of 
decay,  hence  it  is  so  far  less  suitable.  The  straw  of  peas 
does  not  shake  apart  so  readily  as  the  straw  of  non-legumi- 
nous cereals,  and  this  is  so  far  against  it.  So  convenient 
and  suitable  is  the  straw  of  the  cereals  for  litter,  that  to 
grow  an  ample  supply  of  this  to  be  used  alone  or  witli 
other  absorbents,  as  loam  and  peat,  is  worthy  of  the  care- 
ful consideration  of  the  grower  of  live  stock.  The  fore- 
thought which  holds  over  straw  for  litter  and  properly 
protected,  from  seasons  when  it  is  abundant  against  the 
need  of  seasons  when  it  is  scarce,  is  to  be  commended. 

Many  kinds  of  straw  are  considered  too  valuable,  more 
especially  in  old  settlements,  and  justly  so,  for  being  used 
directly  as  litter.  They  are  first  fed  and  the  refuse  portions 
are  then  used  as  litter.  This  applies  most  markedly  to  the 
straw  of  legumes,  which,  when  harvested  properly,  is 
more  valuable  as  fodder  than  hay  overripe  or  damaged. 
When  hay  is  overripe  at  the  time  of  harvesting,  when  it 
is  damaged  in  the  curing  to  the  extent  of  lessening  much 
of  its  palatability,  and  when  it  grows  so  as  to  be  coarse  and 
possessed  of  many  large  stems,  live  stock  well  fed  will 
reject  more  or  less  of  it.  This  may  generally  be  used  with 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  497 

highest  profit  as  litter,  although  in  some  instances  it  will  be 
more  profitable  when  cleaning  out  the  feed  boxes  to  give 
such  refuse  to  animals  that  are  being  carried  through  the 
winter  on  a  less  palatable  fodder  ration.  Hay  rejected  by 
work  horses,  cows  or  cattle  that  are  being  fattened,  may 
thus  be  utilized  by  store  cattle  fed  in  sheds  or  otherwise. 

The  rejected  portions  of  corn  stalks  or  of  the  sorghums 
do  not  furnish  suitable  litter  when  fed  in  the  unprepared 
form,  that  is,  when  fed  as  they  grew.  Because  of  their 
stiffness  and  shape,  they  are  not  well  suited  for  bedding, 
and  there  is  the  further  objection  that  they  add  much  to 
the  labor  in  handling  the  manure.  The  objections  to  such 
litter  may  be  in  a  great  measure,  and  in  some  instances 
entirely  overcome,  by  shredding  or  cutting  up  the  stalks 
before  they  are  fed. 

Prominent  among  the  refuse  from  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments used  as  litter,  are  sawdust,  shavings  and  spent 
tan  bark.  The  supply  of  these  is  more  or  less  limited.  Saw- 
dust has  the  merit  of  being  clean  and  easily  handled  and 
will  absorb  three  times  its  weight  of  liquid,  but  it  is  low 
in  fertilizing  ingredients,  decays  slowly  and  promotes  fire- 
fang  in  manure  heaps  when  present  in  the  same,  unless  the 
contents  are  speedily  applied  to  the  land.  Shavings  do  not 
fork  readily  and  decay  slowly.  Spent  tan  bark  is  quite 
low  in  fertilizing  constituents  and  may  generally  be  better 
applied  as  a  mulch. 

Leaves  furnish  suitable  litter  and  rank  considerably 
higher  than  straw  in  absorbing  liquid,  but  they  are  not 
equal  to  straw  as  fertilizers.  Moreover,  the  labor  of  gather- 
ing and  storing  them  is  considerable.  The  profit  from 
using  them,  therefore,  as  litter,  is  sometimes  to  be  ques- 
tioned, unless  where  cheaper  sources  of  the  same  are  not 
obtainable,  or  when  they  are  necessary  for  the  absorption 
of  urine,  much  of  which  would  otherwise  be  lost. 

Loam  may  answer  for  bedding  in  the  absence  of  other 
materials,  and  may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  them,  as 
when  used  in  stables  to  absorb  the  liquids.  Humus  soils  are 


498  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

also  good  because  of  their  relative  lightness  and  absorptive 
power.  Clay  soils  are  ill-suited  to  such  a  use,  because  of 
the  tendency  in  them  to  bake  when  handling  or  tramped 
on  while  wet.  One  chief  objection  to  soil  as  bedding  is  the 
labor  involved  in  handling  it. 

Moss  and  peat  are  frequently  used  for  litter.  Both 
stand  high  in  their  power  to  absorb  liquids,  but  peat  is 
richer  in  the  elements  of  plant  food  than  moss,  although 
in  this  respect  it  varies  much,  dependent  on  the  sources 
from  which  it  is  obtained  and  the  stage  of  reduction  which 
it  has  reached.  It  must,  of  course,  be  secured,  allowed  to 
dry  and  stored,  before  it  can  be  thus  used,  which  means 
considerable  labor,  but  there  may  be  instances  in  which  its 
use,  especially  as  an  absorbent,  is  to  be  commended. 

The  uses  of  litter. — The  principal  objects  sought 
in  using  litter  are:  (i)  To  add  to  the  comfort  of 
animals,  more  especially  when  they  are  taking  rest;  (2) 
to  absorb  the  urine  and  to  arrest  volatile  gases  as  ammonia ; 
(3)  to  increase  the  quantity  of  the  manure.  The  first  of 
these  is,  of  course,  primary,  but  usually  all  three  are  im- 
portant. 

Bedding  or  litter  adds  to  the  comfort  of  animals  by 
furnishing  them  with  a  soft  and  dry  bed,  and  in  many  in- 
stances by  increasing  the  warmth  of  the  same.  From 
choice,  animals  will  soon  learn  to  select  places  where  soft 
litter  is  most  abundant,  when  given  such  liberty,  thus  plainly 
indicating  that  benefit  will  result  from  furnishing  them  such 
a  bed.  Animals  also  instinctively  shun  taking  rest  on  a 
wet  bed.  Rather  than  do  so  they  will  go  for  long  periods 
without  lying  down,  hence  the  importance  of  keeping  yards 
well  bedded  and  also  sheds,  when  animals  must  take  rest 
in  one  or  the  other.  Litter  supplies  warmth  in  cold 
weather.  It  is  particularly  helpful  in  this  respect  when 
animals  in  the  stall  must  take  rest  on  cement  or  concrete 
floors,  and  when  its  presence  in  yards  or  sheds  removes 
dampness.  It  is  also  very  helpful  in  increasing  warmth  in 
swine  when  abundantly  supplied. 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  499 

The  liquid  portion  of  the  manure  is  very  valuable,  and 
the  plant  food  in  it  is  readily  available,  hence  the  im- 
portance of  saving  it  in  a  way  that  will  conserve  its  proper- 
ties and  make  its  application  easily  possible.  The  old 
method  of  draining  it  into  tanks  and  drawing  it  from  these 
is  objectionable,  first,  because  of  the  expense  and  second, 
because  of  the  extent  to  which  nitrogen  is  lost  when  it  is 
kept  for  any  considerable  time  in  these.  It  is  considered 
preferable  to  absorb  the  liquid  by  using  some  kind  of  litter 
which  may  then  be  applied  to  the  land.  Certain  gases, 
as  ammonia,  escape  from  manure  in  considerable  quantities, 
especially  from  horse  and  sheep  manure,  and  to  prevent 
the  same  through  fixation,  certain  substances  are  used. 
These  are  also  used  in  cow  stables  to  lessen  the  presence 
of  odors  that  are  injurious  to  milk. 

To  absorb  the  liquids,  straw  is  more  commonly  used 
because  of  its  plentifulness,  but  leaves,  moss,  peat,  and  dry 
loam  or  muck,  may  also  be  used.  Peat,  loam,  and  muck  in 
addition  to  their  absorptive  powers  also  lessen  the  extent  to 
which  odors  are  present.  To  prevent  the  escape  of  am- 
monia, land  plaster  has  been  much  recommended  and  used. 
But  the  question  of  the  profit  resulting  is  not  fully  settled. 
Some  good  authorities  claim  that  acid  phosphate  is  superior 
to  gypsum.  Others  claim  that,  cost  considered,  the  use  of 
dry  peat,  loam  or  muck  is  superior  to  either  gypsum  or 
acid  phosphate. 

In  localities  where  fertilizers  are  much  prized,  the  free 
use  of  the  absorbents  named  adds  greatly  to  the  quantity 
of  fertilizing  materials  saved  and  also  made.  The  increase 
is  usually  more  cheaply  secured  than  it  would  be  by  com- 
posting, more  especially  when  the  manure  thus  made  is 
drawn  at  once  and  spread  on  the  land.  A  saving  is  thus 
effected  in  labor,  and  the  loss  of  plant  food  in  the  manure 
through  leaching  and  excessive  fermentation  is  reduced 
to  the  lowest  minimum  possible.  But,  of  course,  it  is  not 
always  practicable  to  apply  manure  to  the  land  thus  quickly. 
Through  the  use  of  suitable  absorbents,  it  should  be  easily 


5OO  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

possible  to  more  than  double  the  amount  of  the  fertilizing 
ingredients  made  and  saved  in  the  absence  of  these. 

Preparing  and  using  litter. — The  proper  preparation 
for  use  will,  of  course,  vary  with  its  nature,  and  the  source 
from  which  it  is  obtained.  Prominent  among  the  processes 
to  be  followed  are :  ( I )  The  proper  housing  or  stacking 
of  straw;  (2)  the  chaffing  of  straw  and  the  shredding  of 
the  stalks  of  corn  and  sorghum,  and  (3)  the  storing  of 
.earth,  the  gathering  of  moss  and  the  drying  and  storing  of 
peat. 

Wet  litter  is  worse  than  none,  as  it  is  prejudicial  to  the 
well-doing  of  all  kinds  of  domestic  animals.  Straw  may 
most  easily  be  kept  dry  by  housing  it,  but  frequently  this 
may  not  be  practicable.  When  it  is  not,  it  should  be  stacked 
with  care  and  conveniently  to  where  it  will  be  used.  The 
"blowers"  used  so  extensively  in  threshing,  as  generally 
used  make  careful  stacking  almost  impossible,  with  the 
result  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  straw  is  made  useless 
for  bedding  through  the  rain  which  penetrates  it. 

Straw  of  the  small  cereal  grains  is  more  commonly 
used  without  being  chaffed,  but  where  this  can  be  done 
in  conjunction  with  the  threshing  of  the  grain,  the  benefit 
which  results  from  the  less  quantity  called  for,  and  the 
superior  condition  of  the  manure  for  immediate  application, 
more  than  pay  for  the  added  cost.  When  thus  chaffed,  the 
length  of  the  pieces  are  from,  say  2  to  4  inches.  Corn  and 
sorghum  stalks  are  greatly  improved  as  litter  by  shredding, 
a  process  which  tears  them  up  into  strips  and  makes  them 
in  a  sense  like  straw.  The  shredding  is  primarily  done  to 
prepare  them  for  food,  and  only  the  rejected  portions  are 
ordinarily  used  for  litter.  In  moist  climates  it  is  not  easy 
to  preserve  fodder  shredded  thus,  but  it  is  quite  practicable 
in  the  more  dry  regions  of  the  West.  Earth  must  be  drawn 
and  stored  when  dry  to  be  properly  serviceable,  light  loams 
and  humus  soils  are  to  be  preferred  and  clays  should  be 
rejected.  Moss  must,  of  course,  be  gathered  and  stored 
when  the  condition  of  the  marshes  which  supply  it  makes 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  5OI 

this  practicable,  and  the  same*  is  true  of  peat.  In  some  in- 
stances, the  peat  must  first  be  dried  by  laying  it  open  to  the 
sun. 

The  mode  of  using  litter  will  vary  with  its  nature  and 
with  the  conditions  under  which  the  animals  are  kept.  Earth 
and  peat  are  more  commonly  used  as  absorbents  in  con- 
junction with  other  litter  used  to  provide  a  suitable  bed  on 
which  the  animals  may  lie.  When  thus  used,  they  are  more 
commonly  spread  in  the  trench  behind  the  stalls  in  which 
the  droppings  and  urine  accumulate.  But  in  some  instances, 
especially  in  western  Europe,  these  substances  are  used  as 
the  sole  sources  of  litter.  They  are  placed  in  the  stall  to 
the  depth  of  several  inches  and  are  removed  at  intervals. 

When  straw  or  fodder  is  first  fed,  and  the  rejected 
portion  used  as  bedding,  the  source  of  supply  is  very  con- 
venient since  the  labor  involved  consists  simply  in  removing 
the  refuse  from  the  manger  or  food  box  and  spreading  it 
in  the  stall  in  the  one  instance  or  in  the  shed  or  yard  in  the 
other.  Cattle  that  are  being  fattened  or  cows  fed  plenti- 
fully on  good  food  will  not  eat  any  considerable  quantity 
of  straw,  but  this  does  not  hold  true  of  cattle  or  horses  that 
are  being  carried  through  the  winter,  and  it  is  even  less  true 
of  breeding  flocks  of  sheep.  When  fed  at  the  noon  hour, 
the  refuse  is  ready  for  use  as  litter  just  when  it  is  most 
wanted,  that  is  as  night  approaches. 

When  animals  are  confined  in  stalls  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  day,  care  should  be  taken  by  the  attendant  to 
throw  back  the  droppings  that  may  have  fallen  upon  the 
platform  several  times  during  the  day,  to  insure  greater 
cleanliness.  When  they  run  at  large  in  sheds  and  yards,  the 
frozen  droppings  should  be  removed  occasionally,  when 
they  cannot  be  deeply  covered  with  litter.  It  is  usual  to 
supply  litter  but  once  a  day. 

The  amount  of  litter  required  will  vary  with  the  class 
of  animals,  the  food  fed  and  the  materials  used.  Horses 
call  for  the  least  in  proportion  to  their  weight  and  swine 
probably  for  the  most  in  cold  weather.  Show  animals 


5O2  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

must  be  supplied  plentifully  with  bedding.  Animals  loose 
in  box  stalls,  sheds  or  yards  call  for  more  than  those  tied 
in  the  stall.  The  minimum  supply  of  straw  bedding  for  a 
horse,  has  been  put  at  5  pounds  by  some  authorities.  For 
a  mature  cattle  beast  in  the  stall,  it  has  been  put  at  about 
one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  dry  matter  fed,  or  at,  say 
7  to  10  pounds.  When  earth  only  is  used,  as  much  as  150 
pounds  daily  will  be  wanted.  A  bushel  basket  full  of  dry 
peat  daily  per  animal  will  usually  suffice  as  an  absorbent 
of  the  liquids. 

The  season  for  breeding. — The  season  when  the 
young  animals  may  be  produced  with  best  advantage  will 
depend :  ( I )  On  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  them,  and  also 
of  the  dams;  (2)  on  the  conveniences  available  in  properly 
caring  for  them,  and  (3)  on  the  time  that  may  be  secured 
in  giving  them  the  necessary  care. 

Foals  are  usually  born  in  the  spring,  a  result  that  is 
probably  to  be  attributed  to  custom  more  than  to  anything 
else.  The  reasons  are  weighty,  however,  why  the  aim 
should  be  to  have  them  produced  in  the  autumn.  In  a 
majority  of  instances  idleness,  from  the  very  nature  of  farm 
work  is  enforced  on  the  dams  in  winter,  and  work  is  de- 
sired of  them  in  summer,  which  means  that  such  mares 
can  better  sustain  their  foals  in  winter  and  can  also  render 
more  efficient  service  in  summer.  The  work  thus  given, 
if  not  excessive,  would  be  beneficial  to  the  foal  in  embryo 
which  she  might  carry  at  such  a  time.  There  has  been 
complaint  that  conception  in  the  autumn  is  not  so  sure  as 
in  the  spring,  and  it  is  probably  well  grounded,  but  if  true, 
there  are  no  good  reasons  why  this  greater  shyness  of  con- 
ception on  the  part  of  brood  mares  at  that  season  may  not 
be  overcome. 

The  advantages  of  having  cows  produce  their  young  in 
the  autumn  include  the  following :  ( i )  It  secures  abundant 
milk  in  winter  which  is  more  profitable  than  at  any  other  sea- 
son; (2)  more  time  can  be  secured  for  taking  care  of  the 
calves  during  the  period  of  feeding  milk,  and  (3)  the  wean- 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  503 

ing  season  comes  at  a  propitious  time,  that  is,  when  grass  is 
succulent.  The  second  and  third  of  these  advantages  ap- 
ply equally  to  foals. 

The  season  for  lambs  to  arrive  is  from  November 
i  to  June  i,  according  to  the  market  for  which  they 
are  grown  and  as  to  whether  they  are  grown  for 
breeding  uses.  Milk  lambs  are  best  in  season  when 
produced  between  November  i  and  February  i.  Eas- 
ter lambs  are  best  produced  from  January  i  to  March  i. 
Spring  lambs  for  the  general  market  come  most  oppor- 
tunely in  March  and  April,  and  lambs  for  autumn  and  win- 
ter feeding,  from  April  onward.  -  For  breeding  uses  they 
usually  develop  somewhat  better  when  born  in  the  early 
rather  than  the  late  spring. 

When  but  one  litter  of  swine  is  reared  in  a  season 
it  may  be  produced  any  season  that  may  be  most  convenient 
after  settled  cold  weather  is  gone,  which  will,  give  the  pigs 
time  to  develop  sufficiently  for  the  market  for  which  they 
are  intended.  When  two  litters  are  wanted,  March  and 
April  are  auspicious  months  for  the  first  litter,  and  Sep- 
tember and  October  for  the  second.  The  earlier  month  in 
each  instance  is  to  be  preferred. 

Where  the  conveniences  are  not  at  hand  for  properly 
protecting  young  animals  from  inclement  weather,  or  for 
furnishing  them  and  the  dams  with  suitable  food,  they 
should  not  be  brought  forth  under  such  conditions.  These 
conditions  sometimes  exist  on  the  arable  farm  and  are  very 
frequently  present  in  range  areas. 

Young  animals,  from  the  nature  of  their  necessities, 
call  for  more  attention  than  animals  that  are  older.  The 
time  for  giving  it  is  less  easily  secured  from  the  beginning 
of  seed  time  to  the  end  of  harvest,  when  farm  work  is  al- 
ways pressing.  Because  of  this  and  for  other  reasons,  the 
aim  should  be  to  avoid  having  young  animals  brought  into 
existence  at  such  a  time. 

The  season  at  which  young  animals  shall  be  born  can- 
not be  completely  controlled  by  the  owner  of  the  stock,  but 


5O4  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

usually  it  can.  He  can  control  the  time  of  mating,  but  of 
course,  not  in  all  instances  the  time  of  conception.  The  ex- 
tremes in  the  duration  of  the  period  of  gestation  in  the 
mare  may  be  set  down  approximately  as  295  to  370  days ; 
in  the  cow  as  265  to  300  days;  in  the  ewe  as  145  to  154 
days,  and  in  the  sow  as  no  to  118  days.  The  average  dura- 
tion approximately  of  the  period  of  gestation  in  the  mare 
is  330  days ;  in  the  cow,  282  days ;  in  the  ewe,  149  days,  and 
in  the  sow  113  days.  Usually  when  breeding  animals  are 
in  a  normal  condition  as  to  health  and  flesh  and  are  properly 
fed  and  of  sufficient  age,  they  may  be  depended  upon  to 
breed  with  much  certainty  and  near  to  the  time  desired. 

The  dam  at  parturition. — The  time  of  parturition  is 
a  more  or  less  critical  one  with  the  dam.  Neglect  or  in- 
judicious feeding  at  such  a  time  may  readily  prove  fatal 
to  both  the  dam  and  her  offspring.  With  reference  to  it, 
the  following  recommendations  will  always  be  in  order : 
(i)  The  food  preceding  parturition  should  be  more  or 
less  succulent  and  slightly  laxative;  (2)  the  owner  or  per- 
son in  charge  should  aim  to  be  present  when  it  occurs,  and 
(3)  the  dam  should  be  fed  with  a  prudent  caution  for 
some  time  subsequently. 

Succulence  in  the  food  is  beneficial :  ( I )  In  the 
tendency  which  it  exerts  on  the  digestion  in  preventing  con- 
stipation, (2)  in  the  influence  which  it  exerts  in  con- 
sequence in  counteracting  all  tendency  to  feverishness  such 
as  a  constipated  condition  of  the  system  is  sure  to  induce, 
and  (3)  in  furnishing  in  plentiful  supply,  food  for  the 
progeny  as  soon  as  born.  Some  caution,  however,  is  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  cows  known  to  be  free  milkers,  lest  the 
strong  tendency  to  superabundant  milk  secretion  should  so 
react  on  the  vital  forces  of  the  system  as  to  result  in  milk 
fever,  that  dread  malady,  which,  until  recently,  proved  so 
fatal  to  dams  when  it  appeared.  In  summer,  no  food  is 
superior  to  grass,  and  at  other  seasons,  such  food  adjuncts 
as  field  roots,  wheat  bran,  oil  cake  and  corn  ensilage  with 
but  little  of  the  grain  in  it,  are  all  good. 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  505 

The  advantage  from  the  presence  of  an  attendant  may 
result  from  various  occurrences.  These  include  an  abnormal 
presentation  which  may  call  for  assistance;  feebleness  in 
the  progeny  such  as  may  require  aid  without  which  it  would 
succumb ;  and  in  rare  instances  a  viciousness  on  the  part  of 
the  dam  which  would  result  in  harm  to  her  offspring.  In 
inclement  weather,  the  necessity  for  the  presence  of  an  at- 
tendant is  proportionately  increased.  The  profits  that  oc- 
cur from  keeping  live  stock  are  probably  influenced  more 
by  the  results  at  the  time  of  parturition,  than  by  those  oc- 
curring at  any  other  period. 

The  condition  of  the  dam  at  parturition  is  always  more 
or  less  fevered.  This  fever  creates  thirst.  To  relieve  this, 
water  should  be  supplied  to  the  extent  of  the  desire  of  the 
dam  to  take  it.  But  in  no  case  should  the  water  be  cold. 
In  all  instances  the  chill  should  be  removed  from  it  to  pre- 
vent a  chill  being  given  to  the  system,  which,  at  such  a  time, 
would  almost  certainly  prove  fatal.  This  caution  should  be 
observed  for  some  time  subsequently  to  parturition. 

No  harm  is  likely  to  result  from  allowing  dams  to  eat 
all  the  dry  fodder  they  will  consume  after  the  birth  of  their 
progeny.  But  in  no  instance  should  they  be  given  large 
quantities  of  concentrates  for  several  days  after  parturition. 
Feeding  them  thus  freely  at  such  a  time  tends  to  produce 
disturbances  in  the  udder  which  may  readily  prove  fatal 
to  both  dam  and  progeny.  Any  excess  of  milk  in  the  udder 
should  be  taken  from  it  by  hand  milking,  where  this  is 
practicable.  The  time  required  to  put  dams  on  a  full  grain 
ration  subsequent  to  parturition  varies  from  one  to  three 
weeks,  according  to  the  conditions  present. 

Amount  of  exercise. — Live  stock  cannot  be  grown  to 
maturity  with  highest  success  unless  they  are  given  the  op- 
portunity to  exercise  according  to  their  needs  during  the 
process  of  development.  The  necessity  for  exercise  varies, 
as  also  the  amount  of  the  same :  ( I )  With  the  age  of  the 
animals ;  (2)  with  the  class  of  the  same  5(3)  with  the  object 
for  which  they  are  kept,  and  (4)  with  the  nature  and 
amount  of  the  food  given  to  them. 


506  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  necessity  for  exercise  is  greatest  when  animals  are 
young  and  decreases  with  advancing  age.  It  is  based  on  the 
relation  that  obtains  between  exercise  and  the  removal  of 
waste  matter  that  would  otherwise  accumulate  in  the  system, 
and  also  between  exercise  and  the  firming  of  the  muscles, 
to  enable  them  to  fulfill  effectively  the  respective  functions 
required  of  them.  It  stimulates  the  circulatory  blood  flow  and 
quickens  all  the  vital  processes.  The  necessity  for  taking 
it  is  indicated  in  the  eagerness  with  which  young  animals 
exercise,  and  the  amount  of  it  which  they  take  when  the 
opportunity  for  the  same  is  furnished.  Young  animals, 
therefore,  should  in  no  instances  be  closely  confined  unless 
they  are  to  be  slaughtered  at  an  early  age. 

The  importance  of  exercise  is  greatest  in  the  horse. 
This  arises  in  part  from  the  fact  that  he  is  kept  for  pur- 
poses of  labor  and  travel.  The  measure  of  the  ability  for 
both  has  been  found  to  co-ordinate  in  a  marked  degree  with 
the  amount  of  exercise  taken  during  development  and  also 
subsequently.  Exercise  for  sheep  comes  next  in  importance, 
as  a  result  of  inherent  original  endowment.  The  sheep  by 
nature  is  much  inclined  to  travel  while  grazing.  Swine  can 
be  reared  with  less  exercise  relatively  than  cattle,  but  they 
also  must  be  given  large  liberty  to  exercise  if  they  are  to 
maintain  sufficient  health  and  vigor. 

Animals  kept  primarily  for  labor  require  the  largest 
amount  of  exercise.  Those  kept  primarily  for  breeding 
come  next,  and  those  that  are  being  fattened  call  for  the 
least.  The  necessity  for  proper  exercise  with  horses  is  only 
second  in  importance  to  the  necessity  for  proper  food.  Ex- 
perience has  invariably  shown  that  the  larger  the  amount 
of  exercise  taken  by  breeding  animals  up  to  that  point  at 
which  exercise  would  begin  to  draw  on  the  energies  of  the 
system,  the  more  valuable  are  they  as  breeders,  and  the 
more  successfully  do  they  breed.  With  animals  that  are 
being  fattened,  exercise  beyond  a  limited  amount  would 
draw  on  the  energies  of  the  system,  and  as  a  result  there 
would  be  antagonism  between  exercise  beyond  this  point 
and  the  most  abundant  laying  on  of  flesh. 


CARE  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  507 

When  animals  are  kept  for  purposes  of  labor,  or  for 
breeding,  or  for  both  uses,  it  is  very  evident  that  a  low  con- 
dition of  flesh  calls  for  less  exercise  than  a  condition  the 
opposite,  sustained  by  high  feeding.  Every  pound  of  flesh 
in  excess  of  the  complete  needs  of  the  animal  becomes 
burdensome  and  should  be  removed  by  increased  exercise  or 
reduced  feeding,  or  both.  On  the  other  hand,  a  condition 
of  flesh  below  the  complete  needs  of  the  animal  should  be 
strengthened  by  increased  feeding  and  curtailed  exercise. 

It  is  impossible  to  formulate  rules  for  exercising  an- 
imals that  will  exactly  meet  the  needs  of  all  conditions  that 
may  arise,  but  some  things  may  be  said  that  will  in  a  sense 
serve  as  a  general  guide  under  some  conditions.  Much 
must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  owner  or  attendant. 
The  aim  should  be  to  give  young  and  growing  animals, 
grown  for  labor  or  for  breeding,  all  the  exercise  they  will 
take  voluntarily,  under  favorable  conditions  for  taking  the 
same.  Horses,  when  mature,  if  given  liberty,  will  take 
enough  of  exercise  voluntarily,  except  it  may  be  in  the  case 
of  pregnant  draught  mares  (See  p.  120.)  Stallions  should 
be  exercised  daily,  especially  in  the  breeding  season. 
Draught  stallions  will  profit  by  being  walked  half  a  dozen 
miles  a  day,  and  other  stallions  will  profit  by  a  longer 
journey  and  a  somewhat  quicker  but  easy  gait. 

All  pregnant  animals  should  be  given  the  opportunity 
to  move  about  daily  in  a  yard,  paddock  or  field,  except  in 
stormy  weather,  and  the  same  is  true  of  stock  males.  When 
snow  is  deep,  it  may  be  beneficial  to  give  sheep  a  part 
of  their  food  at  some  distance  from  the  sheds,  in  a  shel- 
tered place,  to  encourage  them  to  take  exercise.  Roads 
may  have  to  be  opened  in  some  instances  with  snow 
ploughs.  Likewise  it  may  be  advantageous  to  encourage 
brood  sows  to  take  exercise  by  strewing  grain  in  various 
places  that  will  give  the  sows  exercise  while  gathering  it. 
Pregnant  cows  seem  to  take  harm  less  readily  from  con- 
fined conditions  than  pregnant  dams  of  other  farm  animals. 


508  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  some  instances,  these  have  produced  progeny  with  rea- 
sonable success  when  tied  in  the  stall  uninterruptedly  for 
months  in  succession.  It  is  questionable,  however,  if  the 
plan  is  a  wise  one. 

The  amount  of  exercise  that  cows  in  milk  should  have, 
is  in  some  respects  an  undecided  question.  When  out  on 
pasture,  every  step  taken  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  the  cow, 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  good  health  is  taken  at  the 
expense  of  milk  production.  But  in  winter  another  factor, 
viz.,  cold,  has  to  be  contended  with.  This  beyond  a  certain 
degree  is  antagonistic  to  milk  production,  even  when  cows 
are  taking  outdoor  exercise  that  would  otherwise  be  bene- 
ficial to  them.  The  best  solution  of  this  question  probably 
is,  to  turn  them  daily  into  a  well  lighted  and  well  bedded 
closed  shed,  in  which  they  may  exercise  daily  in  cold  weather, 
and  to  give  them  access  to  protected  yards  in  warmer 
weather. 

Animals  that  are  being  fattened  for  the  block  do  not 
require  much  exercise,  and  yet  experience  has  shown  that 
even  with  them,  some  exercise  is  helpful  rather  than  an- 
tagonistic to  increase,  and  that  they  also  ship  better  when 
given  some  exercise.  The  more  forced  the  feeding,  the 
more  beneficial  will  exercise  be  up  to  a  certain  limit.  Ani- 
mals with  some  exercise  do  not  get  "off  feed"  so  readily  as 
those  with  none. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
MISCELLANEOUS   CONSIDERATIONS. 

Prominent  among  the  miscellaneous  considerations  are 
the  following: 

1.  The  weigh  scale  as  an  educator. 

2.  Weight  of  animals  at  birth. 

3.  Variation  in  weights  of  animals. 

4.  Influences  that  affect  palatability. 

5.  Feeding  subsequent  to  weaning. 

6.  Feeding  for  quick  conception. 

7.  Salt  and  its  uses. 

8.  Silage  a  varying  quantity. 

9.  Feeding  miscellaneous  products. 
These  are  discussed  in  the  order  given. 

The  weigh  scale  an  educator. — When  animals  are  be- 
ing fed  large  quantities  of  food  with  a  view  to  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  or  meat,  it  is  of  prime  importance  to  the 
owner  that  they  shall  give  an  adequate  return  for  the  same. 
The  exact  nature  of  this  return  cannot  be  known,  without 
frequent  recourse  to  the  weigh  scale.  Even  the  skilled 
feeder  may  be  deceived  as  to  the  nature  of  the  gains,  when 
animals  are  being  fed  liberally,  and  more  especially  when 
they  are  nearing  the  finishing  period.  The  weigh  scale, 
therefore,  aids  in  the  economical  feeding  of  live  stock: 
(i)  In  making  the  comparison  of  foods  possible  and  prac- 
ticable; (2)  in  indicating  exactly  the  product  resulting  from 
the  food,  and  (3)  because  of  the  information  thus  given,  it 
tends  to  make  the  person  who  uses  it  a  student  of  the 
science  of  feeding.  The  benefit  last  named  is  by  far  the 
greatest,  because  of  the  influence  which  it  exerts  on  future 
feeding  and  management. 

Without  the  weigh  scale,  the  feeder  cannot  tell  exactly 
which  of  two  or  more  rations  that  he  may  choose  from  will 


5IO  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

best  suit  his  purpose.  He  may  have  an  approximate  idea 
from  the  results  obtained  by  previous  experimenters  in 
feeding  the  same  rations,  in  the  same  way  and  under  the 
same  conditions.  But,  should  the  conditions  be  changed, 
or  any  of  the  ingredients  in  the  rations,  or  the  amounts  of 
these  fed,  factors  are  introduced  which  will  lead  to  different 
results,  how  far  different,  the  weigh  scale  only  can  ac- 
curately determine. 

In  the  fattening  processes,  the  various  foods  fed  are 
usually  relatively  costly,  so  costly  that  the  increase  in  live 
weight  seldom  equals  in  value  the  foods  used  in  making  it. 
(See  p.  384).  This  result  follows,  even  though  the  food 
and  feeding  are  both  well  adapted  to  the  end  sought.  It 
is  greatly  important,  therefore,  that  the  gains  shall  bear 
a  due  relation  to  the  cost  of  the  food,  and  that  they  shall 
be  liberal  and  continuous.  The  daily  cost  of  food  for  a 
mature  cattle  beast,  while  being  fattened,  runs  all  the  way 
from  10  to  25  cents  per  day.  Where  only  partial  gains  re- 
sult, the  loss  resulting  piles  up  rapidly.  The  same  is  true 
when  cows  in  milk  are  liberally  fed  without  making  cor- 
responding returns. 

In  stables  where  the  milk  of  each  cow  is  weighed  as 
soon  as  taken  throughout  the  year,  relative  capacitv  in 
the  cows  for  production  soon  becomes  known.  This  of 
course,  does  not  tell  the  whole  story,  unless  the  food  also  is 
weighed  that  is  given  to  each  cow,  which  is  scarcely  prac- 
ticable in  the  ordinary  stable.  But  it  gives  an  approximate 
idea  of  relative  production  in  proportion  to  cost  of  food,  so 
approximately  accurate  that  it  enables  the  keeper  of  cows 
to  weed  out  those  least  profitable  and  to  supplant  them  with 
others  without  the  hazard  of  serious  mistake.  Likewise, 
the  weigh  scale  may  be  made  to  indicate  the  degree  of  the 
return  for  food  fed  at  any  stage  of  development.  But  when 
taking  the  weights  alive,  the  liability  to  fluctuations  in  the 
same  must  not  be  overlooked.  (See  p.  514.)  When  due  at- 
tention is  thus  given  to  the  extent  of  the  production  that  is 
being  secured,  the  invariable  result  is  to  stimulate  the 


MISCELLANEOUS    CONSIDERATIONS  511 

owner  to  increase  these.  To  do  so,  he  becomes  a  student  of 
methods.  It  would  be  safe  to  say  that  no  person  who 
weighs  daily  the  milk  of  all  his  cows  will  long  be  content 
with  low  average  production  in  his  herd. 

Weight  of  animals  at  birth. — The  following  are  chief 
among  the  influences  that  affect  the  weight  of  animals  at 
birth:  (i)  The  size  of  the  dam;  (2)  the  age  of  dam;  (3) 
the  breed  of  both  sire  and  dam;  (4)  the  food  given  to  the 
dam  during  gestation;  (5)  the  performance  of  the  dam  dur- 
ing the  same  period;  (6)  the  number  produced  at  one  birth, 
and  (7)  the  size  of  the  sire. 

It  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  is  a  relation 
between  the  size  of  the  dam  and  her  offspring.  This  rela- 
tion may  not  be  uniform  and  constant,  owing  to  the  many 
influences  that  affect  size  in  the  progeny.  The  belief  in 
such  a  relation  on  the  part  of  practical  breeders  is  shown 
in  the  preference  which  they  give  to  well  developed  dams 
when  seeking  progeny  of  superior  development.  This  fact 
is  also  recognized  by  scientists  who  have  studied  the  ques- 
tion, when  they  seek  to  establish  an  approximate  relation 
between  the  weight  of  the  dam  and  her  offspring  based 
upon  her  weight. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  best  averages  in  size  have 
been  obtained  in  progeny  from  females  in  the  meridian  of 
vigor  and  maturity.  Since  it  has  been  noticed  that  progeny 
of  the  first  birth  from  a  dam  not  yet  mature  is  usually  of 
less  size  at  birth  than  the  progeny  of  future  births,  prac- 
tical men  are  chary  about  rearing  such  animals  for  future 
breeding.  They  give  the  preference  to  the  former.  That 
progeny  of  animals  yet  immature  or  past  the  meridian  of 
vigor  would  be  of  less  average  size,  is  in  accord  with  the 
known  laws  of  physiology.  The  food  given  to  the  former 
is  more  or  less  diverted  from  the  foetus  to  complete  growth. 
That  given  to  the  latter  is  less  perfectly  assimilated  than 
at  a  later  period. 

That  breed  exercises  an  influence  on  the  relative  size 
of  the  progeny  at  birth  is  in  accord  with  the  first  law  of 


512  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

breeding;  viz.,  that  like  produces  like.  It  is  omy  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  average  size  of  the  progeny  at  birth^ 
would  be  larger  from  the  Clyde  mare  than  from  the  mare 
standard  bred;  that  from  the  Shorthorn  cow,  larger 
than  progeny  from  the  Jersey;  that  from  the  Lincoln, 
larger  than  progeny  from  the  Southdown,  and  that  from 
the  large  Yorkshire,  larger  than  progeny  from  the 
small  Yorkshire.  And  so  it  is  on  the  average  in  these 
respective  instances. 

It  could  not  be  otherwise  than  that  the  food  given 
to  the  dam  during  pregnancy  exercised  a  determining  in- 
fluence on  the  size  of  the  progeny  at  birth,  since  foetal  de- 
velopment is  a  direct  result  of  the  constituents  contained  in 
the  food.  An  excess  of  carbohydrates  is  adverse  to  develop- 
ment and  an  excess  of  protein  is  liable  to  result  in  impaired 
vitality. 

Performance  in  the  pregnant  dam  influences  size 
through  the  diversion  of  the  energies  of  the  system.  Nor- 
mal and  ordinary  exercise  of  those  energies  is  favorable 
to  foetal  development,  through  the  healthy  influence  ex- 
erted by  use  in  the  various  functions  of  the  system.  For 
instance,  regular  breeding  not  excessive  in  frequency,  will 
produce  more  desirable  progeny  as  a  rule  than  fitful  breed- 
ing. But  should  the  energies  of  the  system  be  over-taxed 
during  pregnancy,  as  when  the  cow  is  carried  through  a 
high  pressure  milking  test,  or  the  pregnant  mare  is  over- 
worked, or  the  pregnant  ewe  is  put  into  high  show  condi- 
tion, the  influence  is  adverse  to  both  size  and  vigor  in 
the  progeny. 

That  the  number  produced  at  a  birth  influences  size 
at  birth  is  sustained  by  the  evidences  of  observation  and 
experience.  Although  the  results  are  not  constant,  and  in 
the  nature  of  things  cannot  be,  the  average  weight  of  single 
lambs  at  birth,  is  greater  than  that  of  twin  lambs  in  the 
same  flock.  This  also  is  true  of  the  average  weight  of 
pigs  in  large  litters  as  compared  with  those  of  small  litters. 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONSIDERATIONS  513 

That  the  sire  exercises  an  influence  on  the  size  of  the 
progeny  at  birth  has  been  denied.  Of  course,  such  influ- 
ence is  less  on  the  part  of  the  sire  than  on  that  of  the 
dam  in  the  very  nature  of  things.  But  that  the  sire  does 
exercise  such  an  influence  is  clearly  shown  in  cross  breed- 
ing where  the  size  of  the  sire  is  much  in  excess  of  that  of 
the  dam.  The  influence  thus  exerted  by  the  sire,  however, 
in  determining  the  limit  of  possible  development  in  the 
progeny  at  maturity  is  greater  than  in  determining  actual 
size  at  birth  because  of  the  various  influences  intra  uterine 
in  character  that  offset  foetal  development,  and  that  cease 
to  be  operative  subsequently.  In  other  words,  ultimate 
development,  the  outcome  of  influence  exerted  by  the  sire, 
may  be  greater  relatively  at  maturity  than  at  the  birth  of  the 
progeny. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  possible  size  at  maturity  is 
not  fixed  by  relative  size  at  birth,  although  there  is  doubt- 
less some  relation  between  these.  Possible  size  at  maturity 
is  determined  by  inheritance  from  both  sire  and  dam,  and 
to  some  extent  from  the  ancestry  of  these.  Illiberal  feeding 
may  result  in  possible  development  being  unattained.  But 
no  feeding,  however  liberal,  can  result  in  development  be- 
yond the  limit  set  by  inheritance,  that  is  to  say,  feeding 
more  food  than  would  be  regarded  as  a  sufficient  ration  will 
not  carry  development  beyond  what  it  would  attain  by  giv- 
ing simply  a  sufficient  ration,  but  it  may  reach  such  develop- 
ment more  quickly. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  state 
exactly  the  maximum,  minimum  or  average  weights  of 
young  animals  at  birth.  However,  basing  the  es- 
timates on  records  of  weights  that  have  been  taken, 
it  would  be  approximately  correct  to  say  that  the 
average  weight  of  standard  bred  foals  whose  dams 
and  sires  range  between  1000  and  noo  pounds  would 
be  somewhere  in  the  vicinity  of  100  to  no  pounds, 
and  that  draught  foals  would  be  proportionately  heavier  ac- 
cording to  the  weight  of  the  parents,  in  normal  condition  as 


514  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

to  flesh.  The  weight  of  calves  runs  all  the  way  from  50 
to  125  pounds,  the  average  being  somewhere  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  80  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  lambs,  large, 
intermediate  and  small  breeds,  is  somewhere  in  the  vicinity 
of  7  to  8  pounds.  The  average  weight  of  pigs  of  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  is  somewhere  between  2  and  2^2  pounds. 

Variations  in  weights  of  animals. — The  live  weight 
of  animals  varies  so  much  from  day  to  day,  that  in  experi- 
ments which  call  for  frequent  weighings,  it  becomes  a  dis- 
turbing factor  to  the  extent  of  leading  to  incorrect  con- 
clusions, unless  the  weights  are  taken  as  the  average  of 
several  weighings  rather  than  as  single.  These  variations 
occur  in  weights  taken  at  different  hours  the  same  day  or 
on  successive  days,  insomuch,  that  even  with  animals  that 
are  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  flesh,  the  same  weight 
precisely  can  seldom  or  never  be  attained  from  weighing  at 
different  times. 

These  variations  are  relatively  more  pronounced  in  cat- 
tle and  sheep  than  in  horses  and  swine,  owing  probably  to 
the  less  relative  capacity  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  latter 
to  hold  large  quantities  of  food,  and  to  the  shorter  period 
during  which  it  is  retained  in  the  system.  But  even  in  the 
case  of  horses,  the  difference  in  live  weight  from  day  to 
day  has  been  not  less  than  25  pounds,  though  weighed  at 
the  same  hour  each  morning  and  before  any  food  or  water 
had  been  given  to  them.  The  difference  in  the  daily  weigh- 
ings of  mature  cattle  similarly  weighed  has,  in  some  in- 
stances, exceeded  50  pounds. 

These  variations  are  the  outcome  chiefly:  (i)  Of  the 
different  amounts  of  food  consumed  and  retained  in  the 
system,  and  (2)  of  the  different  amounts  of  water  drunk 
and  also  retained  beyond  the  time  when  the  weights  were 
taken.  They  are  also  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  in- 
crease or  loss  in  flesh,  by  the  water  content  of  the  tissues, 
and  in  the  case  of  animals  in  milk  by  the  amount  of  milk 
withdrawn. 


MISCELLANEOUS    CONSIDERATIONS  515 

The  variations  resulting  from  food  is  caused  more  by 
irregular  movement  in  the  evacuations  than  by  a  difference 
in  the  amount  of  food  consumed.  The  difference  in  the 
amount  of  solids  excreted  by  mature  cattle  at  rest  has  been 
found,  in  some  instances,  to  vary  fully  25  pounds  per  day. 
With  animals  that  are  exercised,  the  difference  may  be 
greater.  It  has  also  been  noticed  that  the  movement  of 
food  in  digestion  is  less  regular  when  the  diet  has  recently 
been  changed. 

The  difference  in  the  amount  of  water  consumed  from 
day  to  day  is  likely  to  be  much  greater  than  that  in  the 
food  consumed.  It  is  more  likely  to  be  influenced  by  a 
change  of  temperature  in  the  atmosphere.  It  is  also  in- 
fluenced by  a  change  of  temperature  in  the  water  itself. 
When  it  is  called  to  mind  that  the  stomach  of  a  mature 
ox  is  capable  of  holding  from  100  to  150  pounds  of  water, 
and  that  the  excretion  of  urine  is  more  or  less  irregular, 
it  will  be  readily  apparent  how  the  amount  of  water  con- 
sumed may  lead  to  variations  in  the  live  weight  of  animals. 

These  variations  account  for  the  extravagant  gains  that 
are  sometimes  claimed  for  animals  on  full  feed.  A  well 
grown  steer  at  the  Kansas  experiment  station  showed,  in 
one  instance,  a  loss  of  2  pounds  as  the  result  of  seven  days 
feeding  on  a  fattening  ration.  At  the  end  of  the  following 
seven  days  he  showed  a  gain  of  47  pounds  or  nearly  7 
pounds  per  day.  They  also  show  the  necessity  for  the 
utmost  care  in  drawing  conclusions  based  on  weights  while 
conducting  experiments  with  live  stock  that  relate  to  in- 
crease or  decrease.  Some  stations  have  adopted  the  safe 
plan  of  weighing  three  days  in  succession  under  exactly 
the  same  conditions  and  taking  the  average  of  these  as 
representing  the  true  weight. 

Influences  that  affect  palatability. — The  great  im- 
portance of  palatability  in  foods  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed (see  p.  51).  The  influences  that  affect  it 
will  now  be  considered.  These  include:  (i)  The  in- 
trinsic properties  of  the  plant;  (2)  the  nature  of  the 


5l6  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

growth;  (3)  the  inherent  tastes  of  the  animals  to  which 
the  foods  are  fed,  and  (4)  the  extent  to  which  those  tastes 
have  been  cultivated  by  feeding  upon  plants  different  from 
those  to  which  the  animals  have  been  accustomed. 

The  intrinsic  properties  of  the  plants  are  influenced: 
(i)  By  the  class  to  which  they  belong;  (2)  by  the  amount 
of  leaf  growth;  (3)  by  the  extent  to  which  woodiness  is 
present  or  absent,  and  (4)  by  the  aroma.  Legumes  are 
usually  more  palatable  than  other  plants  but  this  does  not 
always  hold  true,  as  blue  grass  when  young  is  more 
palatable  than  red  clover  at  the  same  stage  of  ad- 
vancement in  growth.  Usually,  however,  domestic  ani- 
mals show  a  fondness  for  legumes.  Sugar  in  plants 
also  affects  their  palatability.  This  in  part  accounts  for 
the  fondness  of  domestic  animals  for  corn  and  more  par- 
ticularly for  sorghum,  both  of  which  are  non-leguminous. 
The  more  abundantly  that  leaf  growth  is  present,  the  greater 
is  the  degree  of  palatability  in  plants.  This  is  owing  in 
part  to  the  absence  of  woodiness,  in  part  to  the  fine  char- 
acter of  the  growth,  and  probably  in  part  to  the  higher 
nutrition  which  they  possess.  As  plants  become  woody, 
they  lose  in  palatability.  This  is  very  clearly  shown  in  the 
consumption  of  the  leaves  and  finer  portion  of  the  stems 
of  coarse  clover  hay,  while  the  coarse  stems  will  be  re- 
jected in  the  same.  The  same  is  true  of  corn  plants.  In 
nearly  all  instances,  plants  which  are  rejected  by  animals 
for  which  they  are  the  natural  food  when  far  advanced  in 
growth,  will  be  eaten  by  the  same  when  young.  Foxtail 
(Alopecurus  pratensis)  for  instance,  is  readily  consumed 
by  sheep  when  young,  but  when  advanced  in  growth  they 
will  not  eat  it  at  all  if  they  can  secure  other  food.  The  same 
is  true  of  some  other  plants  even  of  plants  as  valuable  as 
timothy.  The  aroma  of  plants  also  influences  their  pal- 
atability in  a  marked  degree.  The  presence  of  this  prop- 
erty is  conveyed  through  the  yielding  up  or  giving  off  of 
certain  volatile  odors,  which  are  gratifying  to  the  sense 
of  smell.  These  are  emitted  in  a  marked  degree  by  new 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONSIDERATIONS  517 

mown  hay.  When  much  exposed,  as  by  bleaching,  or  when 
wet  with  dew  or  rains,  these  properties  are  dissolved  or 
washed  out  of  the  plants,  and  in  proportion  as  they  are 
they  lose  in  palatability. 

The  nature  of  the  growth  affects  the  palatability  of 
plants :  ( I )  Through  the  rapidity  or  slowness  of  the 
growth;  (2)  through  the  relative  amount  of  the  bulk  pro- 
duced, and  (3)  through  the  proportion  of  the  stem  to  the 
leaf  growth.  The  more  quickly  that  plants  grow  as  a  rule, 
the  more  palatable  are  they,  as  quick  growth  is  favorable 
to  succulence  and  adverse  to  woodiness.  The  more  bulky 
the  foods  are,  the  coarser  are  the  fibres  of  the  plants,  and 
the  coarser  the  fibres  are,  the  less  is  the  degree  of  the  pal- 
atability. Slow  growth  is  unfavorable  to  a  large  propor- 
tion of  leaf  growth,  and  a  large  proportion  of  stem  growth 
is  adverse  to  palatability. 

The  inherent  tastes  of  animals  have  an  influence  on 
the  degree  to  which  foods  are  palatable  to  them.  The  horse, 
for  instance,  is  fond  of  timothy  hay,  but  the  sheep  does  not 
take  kindly  to  it.  The  goat  is  more  fond  of  leaves  and 
small  twigs  than  of  grass  while  sheep  are  much  more  fond 
of  grass,  and  cattle  will  consume  leaves  only  to  a  small  extent 
except  under  pressure  of  hunger.  Horses  are  usually  more 
fond  of  carrots  than  of  other  field  roots,  while  swine  are 
less  fond  of  these  than  of  any  other  varieties  of  roots.  In- 
stances illustrating  this  subject  could  be  multiplied  in- 
definitely. 

Palatability  in  foods  may  be  influenced  by  cultivating 
the  taste  so  to  speak  of  the  animals  which  feed  upon  them. 
Sheep  grown  upon  the  western  ranges  will  usually  refuse 
to  feed  upon  rape  when  first  turned  in  upon  it  if  they 
have  access  to  grass  at  the  same  time.  Soon  they  become 
so  fond  of  it  that  they  prefer  it  to  grass.  Cattle  in  north- 
ern areas  will  not  feed  upon  sweet  clover  unless  compelled 
to  do  so  through  hunger,  but  catttle  in  the  southern  states 
in  certain  areas  will  eat  it  with  more  or  less  relish.  The 


518  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

liking  for  certain  products  may  thus  be  cultivated  to  the 
extent  of  engrafting  it  as  a  permanent  feature  of  the  or- 
ganization. 

Feeding  subsequent  to  weaning. — The  importance  of 
keeping  animals  intended  for  meat  pushing  without  any 
period  of  stagnation  in  growth,  or  even  without  any  period 
of  seriously  retarded  growth,  has  already  been  dwelt  upon. 
(See  p.  371.)  Such  a  period  is  more  likely  to  occur  just 
after  weaning  than  at  any  other  time  during  growth.  It  is 
of  considerable  importance,  therefore,  that  it  shall  be  pre- 
vented. This  is  quite  possible  where  the  necessary  measures 
are  taken  to  prevent  it. 

The  hazard  at  such  a  time  arises,  first,  from  cutting  off 
a  supply  of  food  that  is  greatly  relished  by  the  young  ani- 
mals, that  the  digestive  system  is  accustomed  to,  that  is 
easily  digested  and  that  is  very  nourishing;  second,  sub- 
stituting therefor  a  diet  that  is  less  relished,  that  the  diges- 
tive system  is  less  accustomed  to  or  not  accustomed  to  at  all, 
and  that  is  not  so  easily  digested.  And  third,  because  the 
weaning  season  frequently  occurs  at  a  season  when  the  graz- 
ing has  lost  much  of  its  succulence  and  when  cold  weather, 
with  its  rigors,  is  approaching.  The  earlier  the  age  at 
which  the  weaning  occurs,  the  greater  is  the  degree  of  the 
hazard  referred  to. 

Arrested  development  at  such  a  time,  may  be  almost 
or  entirely  prevented,  by  gradually  accustoming  the  young 
animals  before  weaning,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable,  to  the 
foods  that  will  form  their  diet  afterward. 

This  may  not  be  easily  practicable  in  all  instances,  as 
for  instance,  when  cows  suckle  their  calves  on  the  range 
or  even  on  the  farm,  or  when  lambs  are  born  in  the 
pastures,  the  dams  in  neither  instance  being  given  grain 
during  the  nursing  period.  But,  when  the  dams  are  fed 
grain,  it  is  easily  possible  to  get  the  progeny  which  they 
suckle  accustomed  to  eating  the  same,  by  allowing  them  to 
learn  to  eat  it,  at  first  apart  from  the  dam,  and  later  if 
thought  best,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  with  the  dam. 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONSIDERATIONS  5IQ 

The  weaning  will,  in  such  instances,  be  so  gradual  that  it 
will  not  in  any  way  hinder  growth.  When  animals  are 
hand-fed,  the  conditions  that  relate  to  feeding  may  be  easily 
and  completely  controlled. 

When  weaning  animals,  the  aim  should  be  to  secure 
the  following  conditions,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable:  (i) 
Shutting  of!  the  milk  supply  gradually.  This  is  most  easily 
done  by  giving  it  less  frequently,  as  by  feeding  but  once  a 
day  instead  of  twice  j  (2)  furnishing  a  liberal  supply  of 
concentrated  food  such  as  is  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  animals.  Oats  should  furnish  the  basic  grain  food  for 
foals  and  lambs,  and  even  for  calves  when  not  too  expensive, 
but  some  corn  and  a  small  amount  of  oil  cake  added  will  be 
an  improvement.  Shorts  is  the  basic  food  for  young  swine, 
but  here  also,  corn  will  improve  the  ration,  and  it  may  be 
freely  fed  along  with  skim  milk.  The  supply  of  grain  ought 
to  be  liberal;  (3)  fodder  of  high  quality  should  be  provided 
to  encourage  large  consumption  of  the  same,  or  if  in  sea- 
son, the  pastures  should  be  succulent  and  nutritious.  When 
weaning  takes  place  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  pastures 
become  abundant,  the  grain  allowance  may  be  gradually  re- 
duced. 

In  the  case  of  young  animals  not  accustomed  to  wean- 
ing, the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  place  grain  in  the  fields, 
paddocks  or  stables  in  which  they  are  kept.  In  time  they 
will  begin  to  eat  it,  but  not  until  some  loss  may  have  oc- 
curred in  development.  If  one  or  more  animals  of  nearly 
similar  ages  are  turned  into  the  enclosure,  the  example 
which  they  set  will  lead  the  others  to  eat  grain  sooner  than 
they  would  without  such  example. 

The  age  for  weaning  will,  of  course,  vary.  Foals 
should  be  allowed  to  suck  their  dams  for  not  less  than 
six  months,  and  the  same  is  true  of  calves.  Lambs  are  us- 
ually weaned  in  four  to  five  months  from  birth.  Swine 
should  take  nourishment  from  their  dams  for  10  to  12 
weeks,  unless  when  two  litters  per  season  are  required 
of  the  dams,  in  which  instances,  the  nursing  period  is  cut 


52O  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

down  to  eight  weeks.  When  calves  are  hand-fed,  the 
period  of  milk  feeding  is  not  usually  extended  to  beyond 
four  months.  The  more  completely  the  young  animals  are 
accustomed  to  food  supplemental  to  the  milk  taken,  the 
earlier  the  age  at  which  they  may  be  weaned  without  hin- 
dering development. 

Feeding  for  quick  conception. — It  is  frequently  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance  that  females  shall  breed 
at  a  certain  season  of  the  year  and  .within  the  limit  of  a 
somewhat  short  period.  The  object  sought  is  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  market  better  than  if  the  progeny  are 
produced  at  other  seasons.  These  demands  relate  in  some 
instances  to  the  progeny  itself,  and  in  others  to  the  ac~ 
companying  or  resulting  milk  product.  This  may  fre- 
quently be  attained,  though  not  in  all  instances,  by  the  na- 
ture of  the  food  given  to  the  dam  for  a  short  time  previously 
to  the  mating  season. 

Mares  and  cows  maintained  in  reasonably  high  flesh 
will  usually  come  in  heat  at  regularly  occurring  periods, 
beginning  with  the  former  within  a  few  days  subsequently 
to  the  birth  of  the  foal,  and  with  the  latter  within  three 
to  six  weeks  of  the  birth  of  the  calf.  But  in  a  considerable 
proportion  of  instances,  cows  do  not  breed  that  suckle  their 
calves  until  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  nursing  period 
has  passed.  Ewes  and  sows  will  not  breed  as  a  rule,  while 
nursing  their  young.  Nor  will  females  of  any  class  breed 
when  the  condition  of  the  system  is  reduced  beyond  a  cer- 
tain point.  But  when  thus  reduced  and  nourishing,  suc- 
culent food  is  given  to  the  extent  of  making  a  marked  im- 
provement in  the  vigor  possessed  by  the  animal,  all  the  vital 
forces  share  in  such  invigoration,  and  also  all  the  functions 
that  may  be  operative  at  such  a  time,  including  those  which 
pertain  to  conception.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  will 
be  apparent  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  influence  con- 
ception in  animals  already  in  good  flesh. 

To  secure  quick  conception  in  cows  of  moderate  or 
low  flesh,  they  should  be  given  more  stimulating  and  nour- 
ishing food  rich  in  protein.  It  is  in  a  sense  imperative 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONSIDERATIONS  521 

also,  that  it  shall  DC  possessed  of  a  considerable  degree  of 
succulence.  Usually  the  object  sought  will  be  accomplished 
within  a  few  weeks  from  the  time  when  such  feeding  be- 
gins To  secure  the  same  in  ewes,  they  are  usually  put 
on  rich  and  juicy  pasture  subsequently  to  the  weaning  of 
the  lambs.  The  pasture  is  supplemented  with  a  fairly  liberal 
allowance  of  nutritious  grain.  For  this  purpose  oats  and 
barley  have  been  found  superior  to  corn  or  rye.  Wheat 
also  answers  the  purpose  well.  Rape  pasture  is  particularly 
adapted  to  such  feeding  and  if  well  advanced  in  growth,  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  supplement  it  with  any  grain.  The 
result  with  generously  fed  brood  sows,  subsequent  to  the 
weaning  of  the  pigs,  will  be  similar. 

When  females  are  well  nourished  and  yet  do  not  come 
in  heat,  they  may  in  some  instances  be  made  to  breed  by  re- 
ducing the  flesh  in  a  considerable  degree,  through  with- 
holding food  and  enforcing  exercise,  and  then  giving  again 
enough  of  suitable  food  to  commence  again  building  up 
the  reduced  energies  of  the  system.  The  success  follow- 
ing will  be  dependent  on  the  cause  or  causes  that  prevented 
the  animals  from  breeding  previously. 

Salt  and  its  uses. — The  desire  for  salt  in  nearly  all 
classes  of  domestic  animals  is  so  strong  as  to  amount  to  a 
craving,  if  it  is  withheld  from  them  for  any  considerable 
period.  That  it  serves  an  important  end  in  the  animal 
economy  would  seem  to  be  thus  indicated  by  nature.  Swine 
seem  to  crave  it  less  than  other  domestic  animals,  but  they 
also  profit  by  its  moderate  use. 

Salt  is  not  a  nutrient  in  the  sense  of  furnishing  food, 
nor  is  it  certain  that  it  adds  directly  to  the  digestibility  of 
foods,  as  such,  nevertheless,  it  plays  an  important  part  in 
sustaining  the  animal  by  the  influence  which  it  exerts  on 
the  digestive  processes.  When  supplied  in  suitable  quanti- 
ties, it  increases  the  energy  of  the  vital  processes.  It  does 
so  by  facilitating  the  passage  of  albuminoids  from  the  diges- 
tive tract  into  the  blood,  and  by  increasing  the  secretion  of 
the  juices  of  the  body  and  quickening  their  circulation.  In 
doing  so,  however,  it  increases  protein  consumption.  *- 


522  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

A  second  and  important  use  of  salt  is  the  favorable  in- 
fluence which  it  exerts  upon  the  appetite.  It  renders  foods 
more  palatable  and,  therefore,  when  judiciously  used  in 
preparing  them,  increases  their  consumption.  But,  to  feed 
quantities  abnormally  large  would  lead  to  harmful  results 
as  shown  below.  The  craving  for  salt  is  influenced  to  some 
extent  by  natural  location  and  also  by  the  food.  Animals 
grazed  near  the  sea  frequently  secure  a  sufficient  supply 
from  the  herbage  upon  which  they  feed.  Relatively  large 
quantities  seem  to  be  required  by  animals  grazing  on  plants 
watery  in  character,  as  young  grass  and  succulent  rape. 

A  third  action  of  salt  is  to  increase  the  excretion  of 
urine,  which  may  probably  in  part  explain  the  craving  for 
much  salt  by  animals  on  watery  food.  This  explains  also 
why  animals  which  are  given  much  salt,  drink  much  water. 
The  consumption  of  much  salt  accompanied  by  an  insuffi- 
cient supply  of  water,  would  result  in  diverting  to  the  kid- 
teys  water  that  would  otherwise  pass  off  through  the 
organs  of  respiration,  and  in  consequence  there  would  be 
a  more  or  less  quick  loss  of  weight.  When  abnormally 
large  quantities  of  salt  are  taken,  this  is  followed  by  the 
drinking  of  abnormally  large  quantities  of  water,  which  re- 
sults in  a  waste  of  nutrients  in  the  body  through  increased 
protein  consumption.  Death  has  even  resulted  from  al- 
lowing cows  to  drink  large  quantities  of  brine,  which  had 
been  used  in  salting  pork. 

It  is  particularly  desirable,  therefore,  that  domestic  ani- 
mals shall  be  given  enough  salt  at  all  times  to  meet  their 
needs,  and  that  they  shall  not  be  given  an  excess  of  the 
same.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  adjust  the  amount  of  salt 
given  to  the  exact  needs  of  the  animals  in  any  other  way 
than  by  giving  them  constant  access  to  it,  that  they 
may  take  it  at  will.  If  supplied  only  at  intervals,  they 
take  it  to  excess,  but  not  otherwise,  although  it  has  been 
claimed  that  some  horses  will  eat  it  in  excess  even  under 
the  conditions  stated  above. 


MISCELLANEOUS    CONSIDERATIONS  523 

That  it  would  not  be  quite  practicable  in  any  other 
way  to  adjust  exactly  the  amount  of  salt  given  to  the  needs 
of  the  animal  will  be  apparent  from  the  different  amounts 
called  for  by  animals  of  different  classes,  different 
ages,  fed  under  different  conditions  as  to  performance, 
and  on  different  kinds  of  food.  It  would  not  be  quite  pos- 
sible, therefore,  to  name  amounts  to  be  thus  fed  except  in 
the  most  general  way.  The  amount  mentioned  as  suitable 
for  a  dairy  cow  is  %  of  an  ounce  per  day,  and  for  a  steer 
of  1,000  pounds  weight  as  I  ounce  per  day  when  fattening 
begins,  and  an  increase  of  the  same  up  to  more  than  1^2 
ounces  before  the  finishing  period.  That  the  exact  amounts 
of  salt  required  cannot  thus  be  perfectly  adjusted,  however, 
is  not  inconsistent  with  feeding  salt  in  small  quantities  in 
the  food  to  make  it  more  appetizing,  providing  it  is  not 
thus  fed  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  the  animals. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  exact  mode  or 
modes  of  giving  salt  to  animals.  But  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  aim  should  be  to  have  it  accessible  to  them  at  all 
times,  whether  in  the  stall,  the  yard,  the  feed  lot  or  in  the 
pasture.  It  is  given  in  the  form  of  common  salt  or  of  rock 
salt.  When  given  as  common  salt,  it  must  be  protected 
from  rain,  which  dissolves  it.  The  objections  have,  in  some 
instances,  been  raised  against  rock  salt  that  animals  do 
not  always  get  enough  of  it  and  that  sometimes  the  process 
of  licking  it  makes  the  tongue  sore. 

Silage  a  varying  quantity. — Corn  silage  is  one  of  the 
most  important  fodders  in  feeding  dairy  cows,  and  that  it 
will  become  more  important  relatively  cannot  be  questioned. 
But  in  feeding  it  to  cows  and  also  to  other  stock  the  fact 
should  not  be  overlooked  that  relatively  its  value  varies  so 
much,  that  the  character  of  its  nutrients  should  be  carefully 
taken  into  account  when  deciding  upon  the  other  food 
factors  that  shall  be  fed  with  it.  These  variations  arise: 
(i)  From  the  method  of  growth  adopted;  (2). from  the  de- 
gree of  maturity  at  which  the  crop  has  been  harvested;  (3) 


524  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

from  the  proportionate  amouut  of  the  grain  which  it  con- 
tains, and  (4) -from  the  way  in  which  it  has  been  preserved 
in  the  silo. 

Tests  conducted  at  different  experiment  stations  have 
shown  that  the  method  of  growth  has  a  marked  influence 
on  the  bulk  product  per  acre.  At  the  Illinois  experiment 
station,  it  was  found  that  corn  grown  with  the  stalks  3 
inches  apart  in  the  rows,  the  latter  being  44  inches  distant 
from  one  another,  produced  4.8  tons  of  stover  per  acre, 
while  corn  with  the  stalks  9  inches  apart  in  rows  equally  dis- 
tant produced  but  3.1  tons.  But  with  the  former,  the  pro- 
portion of  the  stover  to  each  pound  of  ears  was  3.6  pounds, 
and  with  the  latter  1.5  pounds.  The  difference,  therefore, 
in  the  feeding  value  of  equal  quantities  of  silage  grown  thus 
will  be  at  once  apparent. 

The  increase  in  the  dry  matter  in  corn  between  the 
milk  and  the  grazing  stage  is  very  great.  At  the  experiment 
station  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  it  was  found  that  the  dry  matter 
in  an  acre  of  corn  increased  from  4,643  pounds  when  in 
milk,  to  7,202  pounds  when  glazed.  When  matured,  the 
dry  matter  was  7,918  pounds.  Since  it  is  claimed  that  a 
pound  of  the  dry  substance  of  well  matured  ensilage  has 
a  higher  nutritive  value  than  at  any  previous  period  in  its 
growth,  the  influence  of  maturity  on  the  feeding  value  of 
ensilage  will  be  apparent.  In  some  localities,  corn  cannot 
be  taken  past  the  milk  stage  for  ensilage  because  of  early 
frosts. 

The  proportionate  amounts  of  grain  and  stover  vary 
exceedingly  in  ensilage.  Corn  may  be  grown  so  thickly, 
that  it  will  not  produce  ears  at  all,  and  yet  it  may  make 
good  silage.  Again,  it  may  be  grown  so  as  to  produce 
nubbins,  varying  from  ears  not  much  below  the  normal 
size  down  to  very  small.  When  grown  to  furnish  a  maxi- 
mum amount  of  ears,  more  than  half  the  weight  of  the  en- 
tire crop  will  be  ears.  Here  again  the  difference  in  the 
feeding  value  of  a  pound  of  silage  will  be  clearly  evident. 
The  bearing  which  this  should  have  upon  the  amounts  of 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONSIDERATIONS  525 

grain  or  meal  to  feed  with  the  silage  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of,  more  especially  when  feeding  large  quantities  of 
silage. 

Silage  differs  considerably  in  the  degree  of  the  acidity 
which  characterizes  it.  The  difference  may  be  so  much 
as  to  justify  the  use  of  the  terms,  "sweet"  and  "sour,"  as 
applied  to  silage,  with  all  manner  of  gradations  between 
these.  The  differences  are  usually  owing  in  great  part, 
at  least,  to  a  difference  in  the  stage  of  maturity  in  the  corn 
when  it  is  put  into  the  silo.  In  other  words,  it  is  owing  to 
a  difference  in  the  amount  of  water  which  it  contains.  Corn 
so  immature  that  it  carries  much  water  is  likely  to  make 
sour  ensilage,  unless  the  quantity  of  this  has  been  re- 
duced by  wilting  the  corn.  Sour  ensilage  cannot  be  fed 
with  safety  in  quantities  so  large  as  sweet  ensilage. 

Feeding  miscellaneous  products. — Certain  products 
are  occasionally  fed  as  food  to  stock  which  do  not  constitute 
a  part  of  any  regular  ration  in  prolonged  feeding  These  in- 
clude eggs,  weed  seeds,  sugar,  oil  of  various  kinds,  and  nuts. 
Certain  other  products  are  sometimes  fed  for  a  time  with 
sundry  kinds  of  food,  to  increase  the  supply  of  some  ele- 
ment or  elements  lacking  in  the  food.  These  include  hard- 
wood ashes,  charcoal  and  bone  meal. 

Eggs  contain  all  the  essential  elements  of  body  growth. 
Although  too  valuable  as  human  food  to  admit  of  their  be- 
ing much  fed  to  live  stock,  in  some  instances  they  are 
fed  to  calves  in  the  uncooked  form  as  a  corrective  to  scours, 
and  in  other  instances  to  improve  the  gloss  of  the  coat. 
For  both  uses,  other  ingredients  may  be  used  that  are  less 
costly  and  even  more  effective.  They  are  sometimes  used 
also  in  feeding  stallions  undergoing  the  strain  of  severe 
service,  and  the  benefit  resulting  will  probably  justify  the 
outlay. 

Weed  seeds  are  grown  in  large  quantities  in  grain- 
growing  areas  of  the  Northwest.  Usually  they  are  sold  as 
screenings  and  are  largely  used  in  feeding  sheep,  (see  p. 
272).  Many  weed  seeds  are  rich  in  oil,  and  because  of  this, 


526  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

should  not  be  fed  without  admixture.  The  seeds  of  foxtail 
(Alopecurus  pratensis),  more  commonly  called  pigeon 
grass,  usually  constitute  a  principal  portion  of  the  weed 
seeds  found  in  western  grains.  Experiments  conducted  at 
the  Wisconsin  experiment  station  showed  that  this  food 
was  not  relished  by  swine  when  fed  uncooked,  that  for  such 
feeding  it  should  be  both  cooked  and  ground^  and  that  when 
so  fed  along  with  33  per  cent  of  corn  meal,  it  is  a  superior 
food  to  the  latter  when  fed  alone.  All  kinds  of  weed  seeds 
should  be  ground  for  swine  and  also  for  cattle,  otherwise 
many  of  them  will  escape  digestion. 

Stigar,  such  as  is  used  in  the  human  dietary,  but  of 
lower  grade,  is  oftentimes  fed  directly  to  live  stock.  When 
so  fed  it  is  commonly  mixed  with  the  grain  or  meal  fed  to 
them.  Animals  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  when  fitting  them 
for  exhibition  it  not  only  aids  in  quick  fattening  but  also 
improves  the  coat.  Mixed  with  other  food,  it  increases  the 
consumption  of  the  same.  For  ordinary  fattening,  it  has  a 
place  when  not  too  costly,  but  it  is  thought  to  exert  a  dele- 
terious influence  on  the  breeding  powers  of  both  males  and 
females  when  fed  to  them  in  any  considerable  quantities,  in 
prolonged  feeding. 

Oil  of  various  kinds  has  been  tested  in  feeding  differ- 
ent classes  of  stock.  At  the  Massachusetts  experiment  sta- 
tion, it  was  found  that  very  small  quantities  of  some  kinds 
of  oil,  as  corn  and  cottonseed  oil,  could  be  fed  to  calves  on 
milk  with  benefit,  but  when  any  considerable  quantity  was 
fed,  indigestion  followed.  None  of  these  are  so  completely 
satisfactory  for  feeding  calves  as  ground  flaxseed  or  oil 
cake.  It  has  also  been  ascertained  that  the  fat  in  milk  can- 
not be  permanently  increased  by  feeding  oil  or  tallow,  even 
when  fed  to  the  extent  of  affecting  adversely  the  appetite 
of  the  animals. 

Nuts,  more  especially  acorns,  in  some  areas  furnish 
considerable  quantities  of  food  for  swine.  The  same  is 
true  of  beech  nuts.  These  promote  quick  growth  and  rapid 
fattening  when  plentiful  in  supply,  but  the  latter  produce 


MISCELLANEOUS     CONSIDERATIONS  527 

oily  pork.  In  order  to  firm  it  such. animals  should  be  fed 
for  20  to  30  days  or  even  longer,  on  some  such  grain  as 
corn,  barley  or  peas. 

Ashes  have  been  found  highly  useful  in  feeding  swine 
that  are  much  restricted  to  a  diet  of  corn.  In  trials  made 
at  the  Wisconsin  experiment  station,  swine  to  which  ashes 
were  fed  freely  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  salt  added, 
the  other  food  being  corn  meal,  made  increase  much  supe- 
rior to  that  made  by  swine  fed  on  corn  meal  only,  with  salt 
added.  The  bones  of  the  former  were  not  only  larger  and 
stronger  than  those  of  the  latter,  but  they  contained  fully  30 
per  cent  more  ash.  Foods  other  than  corn  and  the  sor- 
ghums usually  supply  potash  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
obviate  the  necessity  of  feeding  ashes. 

Charcoal  serves  about  the  same  use  in  feeding  swine  as 
wood  ashes  (see  paragraph  preceding).  Swine,  insuffi- 
ciently supplied  with  ash  in  the  food,  will  consume  con- 
siderable quantities  of  charcoal.  This  in  corn-growing 
areas,  and  in  these  the  principal  need  for  such  feeding  ex- 
ists, may  be  cheaply  supplied  by  charring  corncobs  in  a 
hole  in  the  .ground  of  any  convenient  size,  and  covered  with 
a  metal  cover,  after  the  mass  of  cobs  have  become  suffi- 
ciently aglow  with  flames  coming  up  from  beneath.  Wood 
charcoal  or  charred  corncobs  may  be  most  conveniently  fed 
from  self-feeders  from  which  the  swine  may  partake  at 
will. 

Bone  meal  when  pure,  fresh,  and  made  from  healthy 
animals,  may  be  fed  with  profit  under  some  conditions  to 
both  swine  and  cattle.  It  will  serve  about  the  same  purpose 
in  feeding  swine  as  hard-wood  ashes,  when  about  one-third 
of  the  quantity  is  fed.  When  cattle  are  much  prone  to 
chew  bits  of  bone  or  wood,  which  happens  in  some  in- 
stances, it  indicates  an  insufficient  supply  of  phosphates 
in  the  food.  This  deficiency  may  be  made  up  by  the  ju- 
dicious feeding  of  bone  meal.  The  necessity  for  such  feed- 
ing, however,  exists  but  seldom. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Adaptation     to    requirement 

in    animals     24 

Albuminoids     discussed     . . .    165 

Alfalfa    hay     194 

For     cattle     194 

For     horses     195 

For     sheep     195 

For     swine     195 

For    pasture 310 

Alfalmo,   defined    194 

Analysis     of     foods     not     a 

complete   guide    51 

Ash,    discussion    of 169 

Ashes,  wood  for  stock  ....  527 
Assimilation,  principles  that 

govern     89 

Balancing    rations,    informa- 
tion    concerning     172 

Barley,     232 

For    calves     and     growing 

catttle     232 

For    beef    cattle     232 

For    cows    in    milk    232 

For    horses     233 

For    sheep     233 

For    swine     233 

Bean,    common   or   field    ....    243 

Horse     246 

Soy     244 

Hay    199 

Hay  for  cattle    199 

Hay  for  horses   200 

Hay   for   sheep    200 

Hay   for  swine    200 

Benefits  from  live  stock  . .  1 
Body  heat,  influences  upon  81 
Bone  development,  influence 

of  food  upon   78 

Meal   for  stock    527 

Bran,    wheat    267 

For    calves     267 

For    cattle    being   fattened  268 

For   cows    in    milk    268 

For   horses    269 

For    sheep 269 

For    swine    269 

Breeding,       food      influences 

harmful     to     122 

Food  influences  helpful     to  122 


Breeding — Continued. 

Too  high   flesh  adverse    . 
Too    immature    harmful.., 
When  sought  too  early    .  , 
Breeds,   beef   and   dairy   con 

trasted    

Brewers'    grains    

For    cattle     

For    horses     

For    sheep 

For     swine     

Broom  corn   seed    

Buckwheat     

For  cattle   

For    horses     

For     sheep     

For    swine    

Buttermilk   

By-products  of 

Barley     

Buckwheat     

Cereals,    small    

Corn     

Cottonseed     

Flax    

Milk     

Miscellaneous     .  > 

Molasses 

Oats     

Peas    

Rice    

Rye     

Sugar   beets    

Wheat     

Cabbage    

For  cattle   

For    horses    

For    sheep     

For    swine    

For    pasture    

Carbohydrates,     influence     of 

in     food     

Discussed     

Carrots     

For     cattle     

For  horses    

For    sheep     

For    swine    

Cassava     


PAGE 

.    127 
.    113 

.    112 

40 
272 
273 
274 
274 
274 
262 
239 
240 
240 
240 
240 
294 

272 
282 
281 
278 
282 
275 
289 
297 
295 
281 
281 
282 
281 
287 
266 
340 
340 
341 
341 
341 
313 

168 
168 
331 
331 
332 
331 
332 
338 


528 


INDEX 


529 


PAGE 
Cassava — Continued. 

For    cattle     338 

For    horses,    mules     339 

For    sheep     339 

For    swine    339 

Cattle,  difference  in  form 
between  finished  and 

unfinished    141 

Chaff,     discussed     224 

Charcoal    for   stock    527 

Cheap    foods    and    live    stock       7 

Clover   hay,   varieties    192 

For    cattle 192 

For   horses    193 

For    sheep     193 

For    swine     193 

Clovers    for    pastures    308 

Alfalfa     310 

Alsike     309 

Bur     .  ..  .     311 

Common   red    308 

Crimson    310 

Japan     311 

Mammoth     309 

Small    white    310 

Cocoanut   meal    300 

Considerations  relating  to 
care  of  domestic  ani- 
mals    476 

Relating    to    general    feed- 
ing         443 

Relating    to    meat    produc- 
tion           371 

Relating    to    milk    produc- 
tion          409 

Miscellaneous  in  character     509 

Corn  or  maize   257 

For     calves     and     growing 

cattle 260 

For    cattle 260 

For    cows    in    milk    260 

For   horses    261 

For    sheep     260 

For  swine    261 

For    pasture     314 

Fodder  defined  211 

Shock 211 

Snapped     211 

Corn    fodder     211 

For   calves    213 

For    cattle    213 

For  horses    214 

For    sheep     214 

For    swine     214 

Cotton  seed 251 

For    calves 253 


PAGE 
Cotton  seed — Continued. 

For    cattle     251 

For    cows    in    milk    252 

For    sheep     253 

For     swine     253 

Cottonseed  meal    283 

For     cattle     283 

For    dairy    cattle    284 

For   horses    286 

For    sheep     284 

For    swine     285 

Hulls     286 

Cowpeas     247 

For    cattle     247 

For     horses 248 

For    sheep     248 

For     swine     248 

Cowpea    hay     196 

Crude  fibre    169 

Dairy    cattle,    type    in    142 

Cows,  indications  of  correct 

form  and  function 143 

Cows       contrasted         with 

sires     146 

Sires        contrasted        with 

cows     14*) 

Steers    and    production    .  .      39 
Dams,    condition   at   birth   of 

progeny     128 

Good       condition       during 

pregnancy    120 

Decadence    discussed     81 

Definitions    in    feeding     ....    161 
Dehorning      cattle,      benefits 

from     106 

Development    and    capacity        65 

And    decadence    84 

And    decrease    in    relative 

gains     62 

And     food     74 

And     inferiority     86 

And     live     stock     17 

And  more  food    64 

And    ripeness     70 

And    wasted    energy     ....      80 

In     equilibrium     87 

Influences   that   retard    ...      66 
Principles    that   govern    .  .      62 
Digestion,     principles       that 

govern     89 

Distillers'    grains    274 

Domestic  animals,  care  of  476 
Amount  of  exercise  for  .  505 
Amount  of  water  for  ....  483 

Dam  at  parturition   504 

Feeders,    the    476 


530 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 


PAGE 

Domestic    animals — Continued. 
Furnishing    water    to    ....    486 
Preparing  and  using  litter  500 
Protection      for,    in      sum- 
mer         492 

Regularity    in    care    of    .  .    479 
Season    for    breeding    ....    502 
Shelter  for,  when  young   .    490 
Shelter  from   weaning   on- 
ward         488 

Sources    of   litter   for    496 

Temperature     in       stables  494 

Uses    of    litter    for    498 

Water    for    .    481 

Draught    horses,      scale      of 

points     156 

Dried     blood     298 

Flesh  meal  and  meat  scrap  298 
Dual    purpose    cows,    correct 

form    and    function    148 

Dwarf       Essex       rape       for 

pasture     312 

Eggs  as   food   for   stock    .  . .    525 
Elementary     substances     for 
growth     in     plants     and 

animals     163 

Environment   and   live   stock     32 

And    selection     33 

The   power   of    33 

Equilibrium,      foods      in    ap- 
proximate           46 

Changes     in     46 

Foods    not    in    48 

In  foods,   age  variation  in     47 
In    food    constituents    ....      43 
Influences       that       disturb     45 
Exercise,      amount      of      for 

pregnant  animals   126 

And    pregnancy     125 

And    usefulness     116 

Injury    from   lack   of    ....    117 
Farm     life     and     live     stock     20 

Fat,    discussion    of    167 

Feeding,    general     443 

Adjusting  foods   in    461 

Changing  foods  when 459 

Condimental    foods     469 

First     milk     445 

Food    for    maintenance     .  .    447 
Foods,      home      grown      or 

purchased     463 

Foods    that  vary   in   adap- 
tation    . 450 

Foods     that     influence     di- 
-^  gestion    favorably     ....    452 


PAGE 
Feeding — Continued. 

For    growth      and      future 

production    449 

Generous,       during      preg- 
nancy          443 

High       pressure,       injures 

cows     115 

Moderate     115 

Of  concentrates 454 

Place    for    self-feeders    in  471 
Proportion        of        concen- 
trates to  roughage  in   .  .    456 
Relative   food   values    ....    465 
Relative    profits    from    do- 
mestic   animals    in    ....    473 
Sustaining    power    of   pas- 
tures    for     467 

Standard     180 

Standard,  calculation  of  a.    181 

Standards    discussed 183 

Standards,    influences    that 
affect  varying  results  in.    187 

Stuffs,    tables    of    173 

Fertility  and  live  stock 2 

Field     beans     243 

For     cattle     243 

For    horses     244 

For    sheep     244 

For     swine     244 

Roots  and  corn  compared.    323 

Roots,  discussed    324 

Fish    scrap     299 

Flax     249 

For     cattle     250 

For    horses     251 

For    sheep     251 

For    swine    251 

Flour,    red   dog    271 

Fodder     211 

Broom    corn     .  . . 218 

Corn     211 

Jerusalem   corn   and   durra  218 
Non-saccharine     sorghum.    217 

Pearl     millet     218 

Sorghum     215 

Straw 219 

Teosinte     219 

Fodders     191 

Chaffing    and    shredding    .    360 
Excessive     loss     of    mois- 
ture   in  353 
Influence  of  dew  and  rain 
upon    352 


INDEX 


531 


PAGE 

Pood,     influencing    transmis- 
sion       42 

And     foetal       development  124 

And    pregnancy     124 

Factor    defined     165 

From     by-products     265 

From     cereals     and     other 

seeds     225 

From  cured   fodders    191 

From       field       roots       and 

tubers     323 

From    pastures     302 

Influences  of  on  meat  pro- 
duction           74 

Influences  of  on  milk  pro- 
duction          76 

Nutrient     defined     164 

Or  feeding  ration  defined  171 
Of  maintenance  increases 

with     age     '. .  .      63 

Requirements    and    growth     53 
Foods,        nitrogenous        con- 
stituents   of    165 

Blending  chemically  ....  364 
Blending  mechanically  .  .  362 
Bulk  and  concentration  in.  52 
Bulky  and  concentrated  53 

Cooking    for    stock    366 

Curing,     dry     352 

Curing,    green    350 

Influence   of   cost  on  meat 

and    milk     65 

Influence     on    development 

and  production    60 

Influence  on  other 52 

Necessity  for  variety  in    .      58 
Non-nitrogenous     constitu- 
ents  of    166 

Relative     manurial     value 

of     61 

Soaking    for    stock    365 

Storing     353 

Suitability     for     end 

sought     59 

Value    in     59 

Variety    in    57 

Form  and   function   in  dairy 

cows     143 

And  function  in  dual  pur- 
pose cows    148 

Gluten    feed     280 

Meal    278 

For    cattle    279 

For    horses     280 


PAGE 

Gluten  meal — Continued. 

For    sheep     279 

For     swine     280 

Grain,    grinding    or   crushing  355 

Grasses,     influences    of,       on 

bone    of    horses     79 

For   pasture    304 

Bermuda     306 

Crab     308 

Johnson     308 

Kentucky     blue 304 

Meadow    fescue    307 

Orchard 30V 

Quack     308 

Redtop    306 

Russian    brome     305 

Tall    oat    307 

Timothy     305 

Western     rye     305 

Growth  and  food  required. .  .      53 

Habit,    influences    of,    on   di- 
gestion           91 

Modifications     of,     on     di- 
gestion           92 

Modifications,    not    equally 
easy     94 

Handling    domestic    animals 

defined     . 30 

Hay      from      grasses      other 

than    timothy     202 

Barley     207 

Bermuda 205 

Canadian  blue  grass 204 

Cereals    mixed     207 

Kentucky  blue  grass 204 

Meadow    fescue     203 

Millet     209 

Oats    and    vetches    208 

Oats,   peas  and  vetches    .  .    208 

Oats     207 

Orchard  grass    203 

Peas    and    vetches     207 

Peas    and    oats    208 

Redtop    203 

Russian    brome     203 

Rye   206 

Small   grains    205 

Speltz     206 

Tall   oat   grass    203 

Western   rye   grass   204 

Wheat 206 

Wheat,    oats,    barley     and 

flax     209 

Wild    prairie    205 


532 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 


PAGE 

Health,  conditions  of  good  34 
Indications  and  live  stock  34 
Indications  of  prospective 

good     36 

Horse    bean    246 

For    cattle    246 

For    horses     247 

For    sheep     246 

For    swine     246 

Horses,    draught,      scale      of 

points     156 

Light,   scale   of  points    . . .    159 
Industry  and  live  stock  ....      14 
Inferiority  and  pre-natal  in- 
fluences           86 

Influences    affecting    palata- 

bility    515 

Inheritance  in  selecting  ani- 
mals           26 

Insects  that  cause  unrest   .  .    103 
Irregularity     in     caring    for 

stock     101 

Jerusalem   artichokes    336 

For    cattle    336 

For   horses    338 

For    sheep     337 

For    swine    337 

Kafir  corn  seed   255 

For    cattle    255 

For    horses     256 

For    sheep    255 

For    swine    256 

Kale  for  pasture    313 

Labor  and  live  stock    11 

When     excessive     in     the 

horse     105 

Litter     sources    of     496 

Uses  of    498 

Maintaining     equilibrium     in 

fertility     4 

Malt    sprouts     274 

Mangels     324 

For    cattle     325 

For  horses    326 

For    sheep    325 

For    swine    326 

Marketing     promptly     when 

ripe     73 

Meat    production     371 

Baby    beef    in    402 

Cost    of   increase    in    381 

Duration    of    finishing    pe- 
riod   in    385 

Feeding    in    stalls,    sheds 
or  yards  for 394 


PAGE 

Meat  production — Continued. 
Financial       returns      from 

purchased   feeders    in    . .    400 
Finishing   on   pastures   for  396 
Food    consumed    and      in- 
crease         379 

Gains   when   fattening  not 

worth  their  cost  in 382 

Growing     bacon    406 

Increase   at   different   ages 

in     371 

Increase     during    finishing 

period    in    374 

Leading    up    to    full    feed- 
ing   in    377 

Loss  of  weight  in  market- 
ing    for     392 

Marketing  when  ripe  in  .  .  389 
Season  for  marketing  in..  387 
Shipping  finished  animals 

in     391 

Winter    lambs    in     404 

Middlings    and    shorts    from 

wheat     270 

Milk,  influence  of  succulence 

upon   production   of 56 

Undesirable    flavors   in....      78 

Production     409 

Age  and  relative  milk  giv- 
ing   capacity   in    435 

Breeds  and    427 

Composition  of  milk  in.  .  411 
Feeding  grain  to  cows  on 

pasture    in    440 

Foods    and    413 

Formation  of  milk  in   ....    409 

Lactation    and     ^' ' 

Large  and  small  cows  for  433 

Cost    and     416 

Protection    for      cows      in 

summer   for    436 

Quality    in    424 

Quantity   in    418 

Shelter  for  cows  in  winter 

for     438   ' 

Millet    seed 262 

For     calves     and    growing 

cattle     263 

For    cattle    being    fattened  263 

For  cows  in  milk 263 

For   horses    264 

For    sheep     263 

For    swine    264 

Miscellaneous    considerations 

in   feeding  live  stock    .  .    509 


INDEX 


533 


PAGE 

Miscellaneous — Continued* 
Feeding  for  quick  concep- 
tion         520 

Feeding       subsequent       to 

weaning     518 

Feeding     miscellaneous 

products     ...' 525 

Molasses     295 

For     cattle     296 

For  horses    297 

For    sheep     297 

For     swine     297 

Muscular    exertion     171 

Nitrogen    equilibrium    167 

Nitrogenous  substances    ....    170 

Non-saccharine    fodders 217 

For    cattle     217 

For   horses    218 

For    sheep     217 

For    swine    218 

Nutritive   ratio    177 

Nuts  as  food  for  stock   ....    526 

Oats     228 

For    calves    and      growing 

cattle     229 

For  beef  cattle    230 

For  cows  in  milk 230 

For    horses     23-1 

For    sheep     230 

For    swine    231 

Oil   cake   and   oil    meal    275 

Cake,    old    and    new    proc- 
ess         275 

Cake  for  cattle   276 

Cake    for    horses     278 

^ake  for  sheep    277 

^ake  for  swine 278 

Oil   as   food  for   stock    526 

Palatability,  importance  of  51 
Pasturing  and  fertility  ...  6 
Pasturing  plants  of  Brassica 

family     311 

Cabbage     313 

Dwarf    Essex    rape    312 

Kale     313 

Saccharine    and      non-sac- 
charine         313 

Sorghums,  hazard  from   . .    314 
Pastures  from  small  cereals  315 

And    fertilization    322 

Avoid     close     grazing     in 

autumn     320 

Care    of     321 

From    winter    rye     316 

Grazing   of    318 


PAGE 
Pastures — Continued. 

Improved    by    drainage     . .    322 
Leading    grasses    for    ....    304 

Sources    of    302 

Bermuda     306 

Crab    grass 308 

Johnson    grass     308 

Kentucky   blue    grass    ....    304 

Meadow   fescue    307 

Orchard     grass     307 

Quack    grass    308 

Redtop    306 

Russian   brome    305 

Tall  oat  grass   307 

Timothy     305 

Western    rye    grass     305 

Leading    clovers    for 308 

Alfalfa     310 

Alsike     309 

Bur    311 

Common    red    308 

Crimson     310 

Japan     311 

Mammoth     309 

Small    white     310 

Palmnut    meal     301 

Pea,    Canada    236 

Cow     247 

Peanut    meal    300 

Peanuts      345 

For    cattle     345 

For    horses     346 

For    sheep     346 

For    swine    346 

Peas     236 

For    calves     and     growing 

cattle     237 

For  beef  cattle   237 

For    cows    in    milk    237 

For  horses    239 

For    sheep     237 

Foi    swine    238 

Potatoes,    Irish    332 

For    cattle    333 

For    horses     334 

For    sheep     333 

For    swine     334 

Potatoes,  sweet 334 

For    cattle     335 

For  horses    336 

For    sheep 335 

For    swine    336 

Pregnancy,    principles    relat- 
ing   to 121 

And   exercise    125 


534 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 


PAGE 
Pregnancy — Continued. 

And    food    124 

And  good  flesh    126 

And   impregnation    123 

And    nursing    128 

And    time   of   mating    121 

Influenced  by  food  and  ex- 
ercise         121 

Influenced  by  parents  ....  123 
Preparing  foods  for  feeding  350 
Prepotency,  guarantees  of 

desirable     37 

Definition  of  desirable  . .  38 
Preventing  soil  depletion  . .  3 
Principal  points  in  cattle 

for  feeding   139 

In  sheep  for  feeding  ....  151 
In  swine  for  feeding  .  .  .  153 
Objectionable  in  cattle 

for     feeding     140 

Principles   that  govern  feed- 
ing         163 

Governing   selecting   foods     43 
Relating    to    restfulness    .      96 
Relating  to  prolonged  use- 
fulness         110 

Relating   to    pregnancy    .  .    121 
That  govern  selecting  ani- 
mals    

That    govern    development     62 
That    govern    habit    in    di- 
gestion     and      assimila- 
tion           89 

Profits  from  live  stock    

Protein    consumption     167 

Production       influenced       by 
bulky    and    concentrated 

foods     55 

Deferred     and     usefulness  110 
When  sought  too  early    .  .    112 
Protection     from     cold     and 

storms     81 

Differs        with        different 

classes      82 

When   excessive    80 

Pumpkins      341 

For    cattle    342 

For  horses    3 

For  sheep    342 

For     swine     343 

Quality  in  live  stock   29 

In  beef  cattle 

In  dairy  cattle 31 

In   horses    

In  sheep    31 


PAGE 
Quality   in   live   stock — Continued. 

In  swine    31 

Relation      between      farming 

and   live   stock    3 

Relative    importance    of    in- 
heritance    and    type     or 

form     29 

Restfulness,     principles     re- 
lating   to     96 

Ripeness  in  meat-making  70 
Methods  of  determining  .  71 
Roots,  pulping  and  slicing.  .  359 
Rotation  and  live  stock.  ...  5 
Rutabagas  and  turnips  ....  328 

For    cattle    329 

For    horses     330 

For    sheep     330 

For    swine    330 

Rye     234 

For     calves     and     growing 

cattle     234 

For  beef  cattle   235 

For   cows   in  milk    235 

For   horses    237 

For    sheep     235 

For    swine     236 

Salt   and    its    uses 521 

Scrub     steers     and     produc- 
tion           39 

Sheep,    injury    from    chasing  107 
Principal    points    in    feed- 
ing         151 

Objectionable     points     for 

feeding       153 

Shorts  and  middlings 270 

Silage  a  varying  quantity..    523 

Silo,     the     350 

Skim    milk     289 

And   supplementary  foods.    292 
Sorghum    seed,    non-sacchar- 
ine     256 

Seed,    sweet    254 

Fodder    215 

Fodder  for  cattle 215 

Fodder  for  horses    216 

Fodder  for  sheep   216 

Fodder  for  swine   216 

Sorghums,      saccharine      and 

non-saccharine     313 

Soy    beans     244 

For    cattle     245 


For    horses 


246 


For    sheep    245 


INDEX 


535 


-AGE 

Soy   beans — Continued. 

For    swine    245 

Speltz    241 

For    calves     and     growing 

cattle     241 

For  cattle   245 

For    cows    in    milk    242 

For   horses    242 

For    sheep     242 

For     swine     242 

Squash     343 

For    cattle     344 

For    horses     345 

For    sheep     344 

For     swine     344 

Standards   for  selecting  ani- 
mals           26 

Steers,     scrub    production.  .  .      39 
Dairy    and    production    ...      39 

Straw,       influence      affecting 

value    of    219 

Difference    in    composition  220 

For    stock     221 

Barley     222 

Bean    222 

Flax     222 

Oat    222 

Pea     222 

Rye     221 

Speltz     221 

Wheat     222 

Succulence     and     milk     pro- 
duction   .  .  .  . 55 

And  reproduction    56 

Succulent   foods,    list    of 57 

Sugar   as   food  for   stock    . .    526 

Beet  pulp   287 

Beet  pulp  for  cattle 288 

Beet  pulp  for  horses 289 

Beet  pulp  for  sheep 288 

Beet  pulp  for  swine 288 

Beets     327 

Beets  for  cattle 327 

Beets   for   horses    328 

Beets  for  sheep 328 

Beets  for  swine    328 

Sundry    meals      300 

Sunflower    cake    and    meal..    300 
Seed 253 

Swine,     principal     points     in 

feeding   153 

Points      objectionable      for 
feeding     154 

Table   of   feeding  stuffs   dis- 
cussed      173 


PAGE 
Tables      of      feeding      stuffs 

only  general  guides   ....    174 
Table     I,      giving     nutrients 

and    digestible    foods    .  .    174 
Table  II,   giving  dry  matter, 
digestible      food       ingre- 
dients, and  fuel  value  in 

foods       178 

Table      III,     giving     feeding 

standards     184 

Tankage     297 

Timothy    hay     200 

For    cattle     201 

For    horses     202 

For    sheep     , 201 

For    swine     201 

Tops  of  roots  and  tubers    .  .    347 

Of    carrots    348 

Of  mangels    347 

Of  peanuts  and  artichokes  349 

Of  sweet  potatoes 348 

Of  sugar  beets    348 

Of  turnips 348 

Transportation  of  live  stock.        8 
Transmission     and     breeding 

habit     41 

Fat    in    milk    41 

Influence   of   on   digestion.      38 

Live     stock     37 

Quality    40 

Wool  production   41 

Tuberculosis      at      Rockland, 

Ontario     35 

Type    or    form    in    selecting 

animals     27 

A  basis  of  classification.  .  .    135 

And    form    contrasted 27 

And  form,   discussed 133 

And    scale    of    points    ....    135 

And    score    cards    135 

And     standards     of     excel- 
lence        135 

Extent  to   which   sought    .    134 

In    dairy    cattle    142 

In    domestic    animals 133 

In    draught    horses    156 

In  dual  purpose  cattle  .  .  148 
In  general  purpose  horses  161 

In  light  horses    159 

In  relation  to  horses  ....  155 
In  relation  to  cattle  ....  137 
In  relation  to  cattle  for 

feeding      138 

In  sheep  for  feeding  ....  151 
In  swine  for  feeding 153 


536 


FEEDING     FARM     ANIMALS 


PAGE 
Type — Continued. 

Modified    by    condition 136 

Only    general    in    showing 

use     134 

Valuable    as    indication    of 

utility     134 

Unrest    and    improper    feed- 
ing  98 

And  undue  exposure 97 

And  insect  pests 102 

And    irregularity    101 

And  labor    104 

And    methods    of    prevent- 
ing   sexual    desire    108 

And  vicious  animals 106 

From  lack  of  litter 100 

From    sexual    desire    107 

Usefulness,     age     limit,     not 

fixable     119 

And    exercise     116 

And  moderate  feeding  .  .  115 
Deferred  and  production.  110 
Extent  of  prolonged  ....  118 

Period    of    highest     85 

Principles  of    110 


PAGE 
Usefulness — Continued. 

Prolonged    benefits    from.    110 

Variations    in   weights 514 

Vetch     hay     197 

Vetches     248 

For     cattle     198 

For  horses  and  mules....    200 

For     sheep     198 

For     swine     198 

Weed    seeds      as      food      for 

stock     525 

Weight   of  animals   at   birth  511 
Weigh    scale   an   educator.  .  .    509 

Wheat     . 225 

Contrasted  with   corn 228 

For   calves    226 

For    beef    cattle     226 

For    cows    in    milk    226 

For    horses     227 

For     sheep     227 

For     swine     227 

Frosted     271 

Screenings     272 

Whey    295 

Winter  rye  for  pasture   ....    316 


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engravings.  5x7  inches.  Cloth $2.00 


Animal  Breeding 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  This  book  is  the  most  complete  and 
comprehensive  work  ever  published  on  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats.  It  is  the  first  book  which  has  systematized  the  subject 
of  animal  breeding.  The  leading  laws  which  govern  this 
most  intricate  question  the  author  has  boldly  defined  and 
authoritatively  arranged.  The  chapters  which  he  has  written 
on  the  more  involved  features  of  the  subject,  as  sex  and  the 
relative  influence  of  parents,  should  go  far  toward  setting  at 
rest  the  wildly  speculative  views  cherished  with  reference  to 
these  questions.  The  striking  originality  in  the  treatment  of 
the  subject  is  no  less  conspicuous  than  the  superb  order  and 
regular  sequence  of  thought  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  book.  The  book  is  intended  to  meet  the  heeds  of  all 
persons  interested  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  live  stock. 
Illustrated.  405  pages.  5x7  inches.  Cloth.  .  .  $1.50 

Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  How  to  cultivate,  harvest  and  use 
them.  Indian  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  leguminous  plants,  crops 
of  the  brassica  genus,  the  cereals,  millet,  field  roots,  etc. 
Intensely  practical  and  reliable.  Illustrated.  287  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth. $1.00 

Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  The  growing  and  feeding  of  all  kinds 
of  soiling  crops,  conditions  to  which  they  are  adapted,  their 
plan  in  the  rotation,  etc.  Not  a  line  is  repeated  from  the 
Forage  Crops  book.  Best  methods  of  building  the  silo,  filling 
it  and  feeding  ensilage.  Illustrated.  364  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth.  $1.50 

The  Study  of  Breeds 

By  THOMAS  SHAW.  Origin,  history,  distribution,  charac- 
teristics, adaptability,  uses,  and  standards  of  excellence  of  all 
pedigreed  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in  America.  The 
accepted  text  book  in  colleges,  and  the  authority  for 
farmers  and  breeders.  Illustrated.  371  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth.  $1.50 

Profits  in  Poultry 

Useful  and  ornamental  breeds  and  their  profitable  man- 
agement. This  excellent  work  contains  the  combined  expe- 
rience of  a  number  of  practical  men  in  all  departments  of 
poultry  raising.  It  forms  a  unique  and  important  addition  to 
our  poultry  literature.  Profusely  illustrated.  352  pages.  5x7 
inches.  Cloth $1.00 


Farmer's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture 


A  Compendium  of  Agricultural  Science  and  Practice 
on  Farm,  Orchard  and  Garden  Crops,  and  the 
Feeding  and  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals  :  :  •  : 

*By    EARLEY  VERNON  WILCOX,  Ph.D 
CLARENCE   BEAMAN  SMITH,    M.S 

Associate  Editors  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

T|HIS  is  a  new,  practical,  and  complete  pres- 
|     entation  of  the  whole  subject  of  agricul- 
ture in  its  broadest  sense.    It  is  designed 
for  the  use    of  agriculturists  who    de- 
sire up-to-date,  reliable  information  on 
all   matters    pertaining  to   crops   and    stock,  but 
more   particularly  for  the   actual  farmer.      The 
volume  contains 

Detailed  directions  for  the  culture  of  every 
important   field,   orchard,   and    garden   crop 

grown  in  America,  together  with  descriptions  of 
their  chief  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  and 
remedies  for  their  control.  It  contains  an  ac- 
count of  modern  methods  in  feeding  and  handling 
all  farm  stock,  including  poultry.  The  diseases 
which  affect  different  farm  animals  and  poultry 
are  described,  and  the  most  recent  remedies  sug- 
gested for  controlling  them. 

Every  bit  of  this  vast  mass  of  new  and  useful 
information  is  authoritative,  practical,  and  easily 
found,  and  no  effort  has  been  spared  to  include 
all  desirable  details.  There  are  between  6,000 
and  7,000  topics  covered  in  these  references,  and 
it  contains  700  royal  8vo  pages  and  nearly  500 
suberb  half-tone  and  other  original  illustrations, 
making  the  most  perfect  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture ever  attempted. 

Handjomely  bound  in  cloth,  £3.  SO;    half  morocco 

(tJery  jumpluouj  ,  £4-.5O,  postpaid 


ORANGE  JUDO  COMPANY,  *-« '-«•*!*•• 


Marquette  Building,  Chicago,  III. 


YB  16555 


1 64489 


